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Flashcards · 9990 · AS Topic 2
Research methodology (AS Level) flashcards
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Research methods
- Laboratory experiment vs field experiment
- Both manipulate an IV and measure a DV. A laboratory experiment is in a controlled, artificial setting (high control, lower ecological validity). A field experiment is in the participants' natural setting (higher ecological validity, less control, consent harder).
- Independent measures, repeated measures and matched pairs designs
- Independent measures: different participants in each condition. Repeated measures: the same participants do every condition. Matched pairs: different participants, matched on relevant characteristics, one of each pair in each condition.
- What is counterbalancing, and what problem does it address?
- Splitting participants so that half do condition A then B and half do B then A. It addresses order effects (practice and fatigue) in a repeated measures design.
- Open vs closed questions in self-reports
- Open questions let participants answer in their own words, giving rich qualitative data that is harder to compare. Closed questions give fixed choices, producing quantitative data that is easy to analyse but may force answers.
- Structured, unstructured and semi-structured interviews
- Structured: fixed questions in a fixed order. Unstructured: a topic but no set questions, following the conversation. Semi-structured: some set questions plus freedom to ask follow-ups.
- What is a case study?
- A detailed study of a single participant or unit (such as one family or institution), often using several techniques. Rich, in-depth data, but hard to generalise and open to researcher bias.
- Name the four pairs of observation types
- Overt or covert; participant or non-participant; structured or unstructured; naturalistic or controlled.
- What does a correlation show, and what can it not show?
- The direction (positive or negative) and strength of the relationship between two measured co-variables. It cannot show cause and effect.
- What is a longitudinal study?
- A study of the same participants over a long period, measuring them repeatedly to track change (e.g. Hölzel et al. used an experiment with a longitudinal design). Shows development over time, but participants may drop out.
Methodological concepts
- Null vs alternative hypothesis
- The alternative hypothesis predicts a difference or relationship. The null hypothesis states there will be no difference or relationship (any difference found is due to chance).
- Directional vs non-directional hypothesis
- A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis states which way the difference or relationship will go. A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis predicts a difference or relationship without saying which way.
- What does it mean to operationalise a variable?
- To define the variable precisely in terms of how it will be manipulated or measured, e.g. "memory" operationalised as the number of words correctly recalled out of 20.
- Participant variables vs situational variables
- Participant variables are differences between participants (e.g. age, mood, ability). Situational variables are features of the setting (e.g. noise, time of day). Uncontrolled, either can confound the results.
- Opportunity, random and volunteer sampling
- Opportunity: whoever is available. Random: every member of the population has an equal chance of selection. Volunteer (self-selecting): people respond to an advertisement. Each affects how far results generalise.
- Name the ethical guidelines for human participants
- Minimising harm (and maximising benefit), valid consent including informed consent, right to withdraw, lack of deception, confidentiality, privacy and debriefing.
- Name the ethical guidelines for animals in research
- Minimising harm (and maximising benefit), replacement, species, numbers, and procedures: pain, suffering and distress; housing; reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli.
- Validity vs reliability
- Validity: whether a study measures what it claims to (including ecological validity, demand characteristics, generalisability). Reliability: consistency, e.g. inter-rater and test-retest. A study can be reliable without being valid.
- Quantitative vs qualitative data
- Quantitative data are numerical (e.g. scores, counts). Qualitative data are descriptive, in words (e.g. interview answers). Quantitative is easier to compare; qualitative is richer in detail.
- Measures of central tendency and spread in the 9990 syllabus
- Central tendency: mode, median and mean (no calculation of median or mean needed). Spread: range, and recognising and interpreting standard deviation. Graphs: bar chart, histogram, scatter graph.
- What must and must not be in a Paper 2 planning answer?
- Include the procedure, how the plan is valid and reliable, the types of data, and method-specific features (e.g. IV, DV, controls, design). Aims/hypotheses and evaluation of the sample or ethics are not required at Paper 2.