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Paper 1 – Research Methods, Identity and Inequality flashcards

55 cards on Topic 1, subtopics 1.1 to 3.3. Pick a subtopic or study them all.

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1.1 Research methods – How do sociologists approach the study of society?

What is the positivist approach to studying society?: A scientific, macro approach that studies social facts using quantitative data, looking for patterns, trends and causes, and valuing objectivity and reliability.
What is the interpretivist approach to studying society?: A micro approach that seeks to understand people's meanings and motivations through in-depth qualitative data, valuing validity and verstehen (empathetic understanding).
Causation vs correlation: Correlation: two things are found together or change together. Causation: one thing actually causes the other. A correlation alone does not prove cause.
What is triangulation?: Using more than one method or source of data to check the findings of one against another and increase confidence in the results.
Interviewer effect vs Hawthorne (observer) effect: Interviewer effect: the interviewer's characteristics or behaviour influence the answers given. Hawthorne effect: people change their behaviour because they know they are being studied.
Reliability vs validity: Reliability: repeating the study would give the same results. Validity: the research gives a true and accurate picture. Quantitative methods are strong on reliability, qualitative methods on validity.

1.2 Research methods – What types of data and evidence do sociologists use?

Primary vs secondary data: Primary data are collected by the researcher for their own study. Secondary data already exist, collected by someone else.
Quantitative vs qualitative data: Quantitative data are numerical, such as statistics. Qualitative data are descriptive, in words or images, such as interview transcripts or diaries.
Official statistics: one strength and one limitation: Strength: cheap, large-scale and comparable over time. Limitation: socially constructed by the state, so they may not measure what the researcher wants and can hide unrecorded cases.
Personal documents: one strength and one limitation: Examples are diaries and letters. Strength: rich, valid insight into people's feelings and meanings. Limitation: may be unrepresentative, hard to verify, or written with an audience in mind.
Digital sources and media content: one strength and one limitation: Examples are social media posts, websites and news reports. Strength: easy to access and up to date. Limitation: may be biased, inaccurate or deliberately misleading.

1.3 Research methods – How do sociologists investigate society?

What are the stages of research design?: Select a topic, set aims, form a hypothesis, identify the target population, choose methods, operationalise concepts, run a pilot study, then conduct the research and analyse results.
What is a pilot study for?: A small-scale trial run of the research to find and fix problems with wording, timing or procedure before the main study.
Random vs systematic vs stratified sampling: Random: everyone in the sampling frame has an equal chance. Systematic: every nth person on the list. Stratified: the sample reflects the proportions of groups in the population.
Snowball vs quota sampling: Snowball: participants introduce the researcher to others, useful for hidden or hard-to-reach groups. Quota: the researcher fills set numbers of people in categories such as age or gender.
Structured vs unstructured interviews: Structured: set questions in a set order; reliable and comparable but little depth. Unstructured: a guided conversation; valid and detailed but time-consuming and hard to compare.
Covert vs overt participant observation: Covert: the group does not know they are being studied, so behaviour is natural, but it breaches informed consent. Overt: the group knows, which is ethical but risks the Hawthorne effect.
Open vs closed vs scaled questions: Open: respondents answer in their own words (qualitative). Closed: fixed choices, such as yes/no or multiple choice (quantitative). Scaled: rating on a scale, e.g. strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Name the ethical issues affecting research in the syllabus: Informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, deception, prevention of harm and legality.

2.1 Identity: self and society – How do we learn our identity?

Norms vs values: Norms are expected rules of behaviour in a situation. Values are beliefs about what is important and worth having.
Ascribed vs achieved status: Ascribed status is fixed at birth, such as sex, caste or family. Achieved status is earned, such as an occupation or qualifications.
What does the relativity of culture mean?: Norms and values differ between societies and change over time, so what is normal in one culture may be unusual in another. This supports the nurture side of the nature–nurture debate.
Primary vs secondary socialisation: Primary socialisation happens in the family in early childhood. Secondary socialisation happens later through education, the peer group, media, religion and the workplace.
What is canalisation?: Channelling children towards gender-appropriate toys and activities, e.g. dolls for girls and toy cars for boys, a process of gender socialisation in the family.
How do functionalists, Marxists and feminists see socialisation?: Functionalists: it creates value consensus and social cohesion. Marxists: it passes on capitalist ideology and reproduces social class. Feminists: it socialises people into gender roles of masculinity and femininity.

2.2 Identity: self and society – How does society control us?

Formal vs informal social control: Formal: written rules enforced by agencies such as the police, courts, penal system and armed forces. Informal: unwritten pressure from family, peers and others, such as disapproval, ridicule or exclusion.
Positive vs negative sanctions: Positive sanctions reward conformity, e.g. praise, parental rewards or social media "likes". Negative sanctions punish deviance, e.g. ostracism, school punishments or dismissal from a job.
Consensus vs conflict views of social control: Consensus (functionalist): social control maintains shared values and benefits everyone. Conflict (Marxist, feminist): it protects the interests of the powerful, such as the ruling class or men.
Give two methods formal agencies use to achieve conformity: Law-making (and punishing those who break the law) and surveillance, including digital surveillance such as CCTV and monitoring of online activity.
Why do some people join protest groups or sub-cultures?: To resist social control, express a shared identity, gain status and belonging, or challenge norms and policies they disagree with, e.g. youth, online or religious sub-cultures.

2.3 Identity: self and society – What influences our social identity?

Name the key aspects of social identity in the syllabus: Age, gender, ethnicity and social class. Each affects how individuals see themselves and how they are treated in different societies.
What is the digital self?: The identity a person presents online through social networks, social media and virtual communities. It can allow self-expression and belonging, but also pressure, harassment and a false image.
Cultural defence vs hybrid identity vs homogenisation: Cultural defence: protecting a local identity against global influence. Hybrid identity: combining elements of different cultures. Homogenisation: identities around the world becoming more alike.
How do postmodernists see identity?: As chosen rather than given: people "pick and mix" identities through consumption, lifestyle and digital identities, rather than having them fixed by class or tradition.
Give one positive and one negative impact of global culture on identity: Positive: more choice and exposure to cultural diversity. Negative: local cultures and traditions may be weakened or lost.

3.1 Social stratification and inequality – What is social stratification?

Open vs closed society: An open society allows social mobility based on merit (achieved status). A closed society, such as a caste system, fixes position at birth (ascribed status).
Absolute vs relative poverty: Absolute poverty: lacking the basic necessities for survival. Relative poverty: falling below the standard of living considered acceptable in that society, so it exists in wealthy countries too.
Intergenerational vs intragenerational mobility: Intergenerational: comparing a person's class position with their parents'. Intragenerational: movement during one person's own career.
What are life chances?: A person's opportunities for good things in life, such as education, employment, health, housing and life expectancy. They are shaped by age, gender, ethnicity and social class.
What is intersectionality?: The way age, ethnicity, gender and social class combine to shape a person's experience of inequality, so their effects cannot be understood separately.
Master status vs self-fulfilling prophecy (labelling theory): Master status: a label that overrides all other aspects of identity. Self-fulfilling prophecy: a person comes to act in line with the label given to them.
What is the reserve army of labour (Marxism)?: A pool of unemployed or insecure workers, such as women or migrants, that can be hired when needed and dismissed when not, keeping wages low.
How do Davis and Moore (functionalists) explain inequality?: Inequality is functional and inevitable: the most important roles need the greatest talent and longest training, so higher rewards act as an incentive to fill them.
How do Weberians explain class inequality?: Class depends not only on property but on market situation (the skills and qualifications a person brings to the labour market), with status and party as separate dimensions of inequality.
What is the cycle of deprivation?: Poverty reproducing itself: poor housing and diet lead to poor health and education, then low-paid work, then poverty in the next generation.

3.2 Social stratification and inequality – What attempts have been made to reduce social inequalities?

Give three examples of legislation used to reduce inequality: Progressive taxation (higher earners pay a larger share), a minimum wage and equal opportunities laws. Redistribution of wealth through benefits is another.
How can a welfare state improve life chances?: By providing free or universal education, free health care, unemployment benefits and low-cost housing, so basic needs are met regardless of income.
How do NGOs try to reduce global inequality?: By reducing poverty, providing medical assistance, promoting business (e.g. small loans) and improving education.
What is the New Right criticism of the welfare state?: Generous benefits create a dependency culture and an underclass who rely on the state rather than work.
Marxist vs feminist criticisms of attempts to reduce inequality: Marxist: the welfare state only softens capitalism, keeping workers healthy and quiet without ending exploitation. Feminist: equality laws have not ended unequal pay and the glass ceiling.

3.3 Social stratification and inequality – How has globalisation affected inequalities between societies?

Push vs pull factors in migration: Push factors drive people away from a place, e.g. poverty, war or persecution. Pull factors attract them elsewhere, e.g. jobs, higher wages or safety.
Give a positive and a negative impact of migration on societies: Positive: increasing cultural diversity and economic benefits such as filling labour shortages. Negative: pressure on resources and negative perceptions of migrants.
How do transnational companies affect global inequality?: They bring jobs and investment to poorer countries, but may pay low wages, take profits abroad and cause environmental damage.
How does climate change affect global inequality?: Poorer countries often suffer most from floods, droughts and food shortages while having contributed least to the problem and having fewer resources to adapt.
Marxist vs feminist explanations of global inequality: Marxist: capitalist exploitation, with richer countries and companies profiting from poorer countries' labour and resources. Feminist: patriarchy disadvantages women worldwide.