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Flashcards · 9685 · A Level Topic 4

Unit 4 – Approaches and Application (Synoptic) (A Level) flashcards

25 cards on A Level Topic 4, subtopics 3.4.1 to 3.4.3. Pick a subtopic or study them all.

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3.4.1 Scientific Approaches in Psychology

Classical vs operant conditioning
Classical (Pavlov) links two stimuli and works on reflexes. Operant (Skinner) links a behaviour with its consequence and works on voluntary behaviour.
Negative reinforcement
An unpleasant stimulus is removed or avoided, so the behaviour increases.
Variable ratio schedule
Reward after an unpredictable number of responses; most resistant to extinction.
Mediational processes
Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
What did Bandura (1965) show about learning and performance?
Children who saw a model punished copied less aggression, until they were offered rewards to copy, when they reproduced it: behaviour can be learned without being performed.
Theoretical models vs computer models in the cognitive approach
A theoretical model describes a mental process as stages or parts (e.g. the multi-store model). A computer model treats the mind like a computer (input, processing, storage, output) or simulates thought with a program.
Cognitive neuroscience
Study of how brain structures and activity support mental processes.
How does evolution explain behaviour, e.g. Buss (1989)?
Natural selection passes on traits that aid survival and reproduction. Buss found across 37 cultures that men valued youth in a partner and women preferred older partners.

3.4.2 Issues and Debates in Psychology

Hard vs soft determinism
Hard determinism: all behaviour is caused and free will is an illusion. Soft determinism: behaviour is caused, but conscious choice still operates within those limits.
Biological vs environmental determinism
Biological: behaviour caused by genes, brain structures, hormones or neurochemistry. Environmental: behaviour caused by the environment, mainly through learning.
Interactionist approach
Nature and nurture influence each other, so behaviour results from both together.
Biological vs stimulus-response reductionism
Biological reductionism explains behaviour at the physical level (genes, neurotransmitters, brain areas). Stimulus-response reductionism explains it as learned links between stimuli and responses. Both ignore the cognitive level.
What did Tolman and Honzik (1930) show?
Rats rewarded in a maze only from day 11 quickly matched rats rewarded throughout, showing learning without reinforcement and challenging stimulus-response reductionism.
Falsifiability
A theory makes predictions that could, in principle, be shown false.
Objectivity vs the empirical method
Objectivity: findings are not affected by the researcher's expectations or feelings. The empirical method: gaining knowledge through observation and measurement. A study can be empirical without being objective.
What did the Open Science Collaboration (2015) find?
In replications of 100 studies, 97% of the originals had been significant but only 36% of the replications were, raising concerns about replicability.

3.4.3 Applied Psychology: Work and the Individual

Social facilitation vs social loafing
Social facilitation: performance changes when others are present; Zajonc's drive theory says arousal boosts the dominant response. Social loafing: reduced individual effort when contributions are pooled.
Risky shift vs group polarisation
Risky shift: a group decision is riskier than members' average private decisions. Group polarisation: discussion moves a group further in whichever direction it already leaned.
Groupthink
Desire for agreement in a cohesive group overrides realistic appraisal.
In-group favouritism vs out-group bias (social identity theory)
In-group favouritism: treating members of your own group better. Out-group bias: negative judgement of other groups. Tajfel's minimal group studies (1970, 1971) showed favouritism even in trivial groups.
What did Ekman and Friesen (1971) find, and how did Jack et al. (2012) challenge it?
Ekman and Friesen: the Fore of Papua New Guinea matched faces to emotion stories, supporting universal expressions. Jack et al.: Eastern participants did not use distinct facial movements for six emotions.
Why can e-mail communication cause misunderstandings?
Lack of non-verbal cues, egocentrism (difficulty judging how a reader will interpret you) and limited feedback. Kruger et al. (2005) found people overestimate how well they convey tone.
Vroom's expectancy theory
Motivational force = expectancy × instrumentality × valence: effort leads to performance, performance leads to an outcome, and the outcome is valued.
Additional decrement (AD) vs constant effect (CE) in Warr's vitamin model
AD features (e.g. control, variety, demands) help up to a point, then harm in excess. CE features (e.g. pay, security, equity) help, with extra adding little but doing no harm.
Demand-control model vs job demands-resources (J D-R) model
Demand-control (Karasek, 1979): high demand plus low control is most stressful. J D-R (Demerouti et al., 2001): any demand and any resource count, with a health-impairment process and a motivational process.

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