OxfordAQA IGCSE Psychology: Communication (9218)

3.2.1 Communication is the first topic of Paper 2 (Social Context and Behaviour) in OxfordAQA International GCSE Psychology (9218), Version 1.1, for exams from May/June 2025. It asks how language relates to thought, how human communication differs from animal communication, and whether non-verbal behaviour is inborn or learned. Exam questions expect you to describe each theory and named study accurately, apply it to a scenario, and evaluate it with evidence.

Syllabus coverage

OXFORDAQA INTERNATIONAL GCSE PSYCHOLOGY (9218) — 3.2.1 COMMUNICATION

• The possible relationship between language and thought: Piaget’s theory (language depends on thought) and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (thinking depends on language)
• Variation in recall of events and recognition of colours, for example in Native American cultures
• Differences between human and animal communication; the limited functions of animal communication (survival, reproduction, territory, food); Von Frisch’s bee study
• Properties of human communication not present in animal communication, for example planning ahead and discussing future events
• Definitions of non-verbal and verbal communication; functions of eye contact (regulating the flow of conversation, signalling attraction, expressing emotion)
• Body language (open and closed posture, postural echo, touch); personal space (cultural, status and gender differences)
• Darwin’s evolutionary theory of non-verbal communication as evolved and adaptive; evidence that non-verbal behaviour is innate (neonates, the sensory deprived) and that it is learned; Yuki’s study of emoticons

What is the relationship between language and thought?

There are two opposite positions on the specification.

Piaget’s theory: language depends on thought. Children first develop concepts through acting on the world, and only then acquire words to label them. A child understands that hidden objects still exist (object permanence) before they can talk about it. Language therefore reflects the child’s current stage of cognitive development rather than driving it.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: thinking depends on language. The language a person speaks shapes how they think and perceive. The strong version (linguistic determinism) says language determines thought, so people cannot think about things they have no words for. The weak version says language influences thought, making some distinctions easier to notice or remember.

Evidence from recall and colour recognition. The specification points to cross-cultural studies, for example in Native American cultures. The Zuni language uses a single term for the colours that English speakers call yellow and orange, and Zuni speakers were found to confuse these colours more often when recognising them from memory than English speakers did. Variation in how events are recalled across language groups is used in the same way. This supports the weak version: speakers can still see the difference between colours, but having separate words makes the difference easier to remember.

How does human communication differ from animal communication?

Animal communication serves a limited set of functions: survival (for example warning calls about predators), reproduction (courtship displays), territory (marking and defending an area) and food (signalling where it can be found).

Von Frisch’s bee study. Von Frisch observed honeybees returning to the hive after finding food. When the food was close, the bee performed a round dance; when it was further away, it performed a waggle dance. The angle of the waggle run relative to vertical showed the direction of the food relative to the sun, and the length or speed of the waggling showed the distance. Other bees used this information to find the food. The study shows animal communication can be complex, but it is still about one immediate survival need.

Properties of human communication not found in animals. Human language lets us plan ahead and discuss future events, talk about the past and about things that are not present or not real, and combine words to produce an unlimited number of new messages. Animal signals are tied to the here and now and to a fixed set of meanings.

What is non-verbal communication?

Verbal communication is the use of spoken or written words; non-verbal communication is conveying messages without words — through the eyes, face, posture, gesture, touch and use of space.

• Eye contact regulates the flow of conversation (we look up to signal that we have finished speaking), signals attraction (people look longer at those they like, and pupils dilate) and expresses emotion.
• Body language: an open posture (uncrossed arms and legs) signals friendliness and acceptance; a closed posture (crossed arms) can signal disagreement or defensiveness. Postural echo is mirroring another person’s posture, which signals rapport. Touch can communicate support or affection, and also status, as higher-status people are more likely to touch lower-status people than the reverse.
• Personal space is the area around us that we treat as our own. It shows cultural differences (people from some cultures stand closer in conversation than people from others), status differences (people keep more distance from those of higher status) and gender differences (pairs of women typically stand closer together than pairs of men).

Is non-verbal behaviour innate or learned?

Darwin’s evolutionary theory proposes that non-verbal communication evolved because it was adaptive: signals such as baring teeth or showing fear helped our ancestors survive and reproduce, so the genes for them were passed on. If this is right, non-verbal behaviour should be universal and present without learning.

Evidence that it is innate: neonates (newborn babies) show facial expressions and respond to faces before they have had a chance to learn them, and sensory-deprived people — for example children born blind — produce the same basic facial expressions as sighted people, although they have never seen them.

Evidence that it is learned: gestures and display rules differ between cultures. In Yuki’s study of emoticons (Yuki, Maddux and Masuda, 2007), Japanese and American participants rated the emotions shown by emoticons and faces in which the eyes and mouth were varied. Japanese participants gave more weight to the eyes and American participants to the mouth when judging emotion — matching the emoticon styles each culture uses. This suggests how we read facial cues is shaped by culture.

A balanced conclusion is that basic expressions may be innate, but how and when they are shown and interpreted is learned.

Common mistakes

• Reversing Piaget and Sapir-Whorf: Piaget says language depends on thought; Sapir-Whorf says thinking depends on language.
• Describing Von Frisch’s dances without saying what information (direction, distance) each conveys.
• Defining non-verbal communication only as “body language” and forgetting eye contact, touch and personal space.
• Using Yuki’s study as evidence that non-verbal behaviour is innate — it supports learning.

Frequently asked questions

Which version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis does the evidence support? Mostly the weak version. Cross-cultural colour studies show that having separate colour words makes colours easier to remember, not that speakers cannot perceive the difference.

What did Von Frisch’s bee study show? That bees communicate the direction and distance of food through a round dance or a waggle dance. It is the specification’s named example of complex but limited animal communication.

What is postural echo? Mirroring the posture of the person you are with. It usually signals rapport or agreement between them.

Is Darwin’s theory supported? Partly. Newborns and people born blind show basic expressions without learning, but Yuki’s study shows cultural learning affects how expressions are read.

Related resources

• Communication and Mental Health revision notes
• Communication and Mental Health practice questions
• Mental Health study guide
• Conformity and Obedience study guide

Official syllabus

OxfordAQA International GCSE Psychology (9218) specification, Version 1.1, section 3.2.1 — oxfordaqa.com.