O Level History: The Nineteenth Century — Practice Questions

These are original questions written for Marlbridge, in the style and at the standard of the examination. They are not reproduced past-paper questions — examination boards hold copyright in their own papers. Use these alongside the official past papers available free from your board.

Related: The Nineteenth Century revision notes

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Section A

1. State the aims of the Congress of Vienna (1815). [3]

2. Define nationalism and liberalism as nineteenth-century political forces. [2]

Section B

3. Explain how the settlement of 1815 attempted to prevent future French aggression, giving three measures. [6]

4. Explain three obstacles to Italian unification before 1859. [9]

4a. Explain two reasons why the revolutions of 1848 failed. [6]

5. Explain the role of Cavour and of Garibaldi in the unification of Italy, and explain why Cavour’s diplomacy was as important as Garibaldi’s campaigns. [10]

6. Explain the “Eastern Question” and explain two reasons why the great powers were concerned with the decline of the Ottoman Empire. [8]

7. Explain three motives for European imperialism in Africa in the later nineteenth century. [6]

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Answers

1. To restore legitimate rulers deposed by Napoleon [1]; to contain France and prevent any future bid for domination, partly by strengthening the states on her borders [1]; to establish a balance of power among the great powers so that no one state could dominate Europe [1].

2. Nationalism — the belief that people sharing a common language, culture and history should govern themselves in their own state [1]. Liberalism — the demand for constitutional government, the rule of law, and civil freedoms such as the freedom of the press, usually with a limited franchise [1].

3. France was surrounded by strengthened neighbours: the Netherlands was enlarged by the addition of Belgium [1] [1]; Prussia was given the Rhineland, placing a major power on France’s eastern frontier [1] [1]; Piedmont was strengthened by Genoa in the south [1]. The powers also agreed the Quadruple Alliance and the Congress System to meet regularly and act together against renewed French aggression [1].

4. Any three, 3 marks each: Austrian domination — Austria held Lombardy and Venetia directly and controlled the rulers of the central duchies, and Metternich was determined to suppress any nationalist movement [1] [1] [1]. Division among the nationalists — Mazzini wanted a united republic, Gioberti a federation under the Pope, and others a kingdom under Piedmont, so they could not agree on a goal [1] [1] [1]. The Papacy — the Pope ruled the Papal States across the centre of Italy and would not surrender temporal power, and Catholic France would defend him [1] [1] [1]. Lack of popular support and of a common language — most Italians were illiterate peasants with little interest in unification, and few spoke standard Italian [1] [1] [1].

4a. Any two, 3 marks each: the revolutionaries split between liberals, who wanted moderate constitutional change, and radicals, who wanted more sweeping social change, so they could not present a united front [1] [1] [1]. The middle classes withdrew their support once property and order seemed threatened by the more radical demands, leaving the movements without their most influential backers [1] [1] [1]. The peasantry stayed largely uninvolved, since the revolutions were driven by urban liberal and nationalist ideas that meant little to rural life [1] [1] [1]. The conservative powers kept control of their armies throughout, and used them to restore the old order once the initial disorder had passed [1] [1] [1]. The lesson later leaders such as Cavour and Bismarck drew from this failure was that unification would have to come through force and diplomacy rather than through parliaments and popular uprisings [1] [1] [1].

5. Cavour was Prime Minister of Piedmont and pursued unification through diplomacy and economic modernisation [1]. He built up Piedmont’s army, railways and finances and sent troops to the Crimean War to earn a hearing at the peace conference [1]. At Plombières (1858) he secured a secret alliance with Napoleon III, promising Nice and Savoy in return for French help against Austria [1] [1]. Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, conquering Sicily and then Naples, and handed his conquests to Victor Emmanuel rather than declaring a republic [1] [1]. Cavour’s diplomacy was as important because Piedmont alone could never have defeated Austria — French military support was indispensable [1] [1]; and because Cavour managed the great powers so that they did not intervene as the kingdom expanded, and moved Piedmontese troops south to ensure Garibaldi did not attack Rome and provoke France [1] [1].

6. The Eastern Question was the problem of what would happen to the territories of the declining Ottoman Empire, and which powers would gain from its collapse [1] [1]. Reasons for concern, any two, 3 marks each: Russia sought access to the Mediterranean through the Straits and posed as the protector of Ottoman Christians, so Ottoman collapse would give her a decisive strategic gain [1] [1] [1]. Britain wanted to prevent Russian expansion towards the Mediterranean and the route to India, so she generally propped up the Ottoman Empire despite its misgovernment [1] [1] [1]. Austria-Hungary feared that Balkan nationalism, encouraged by Ottoman retreat, would spread to her own Slav subjects and break up the Habsburg Empire [1] [1] [1].

7. Any three, 2 marks each: economic motives — the search for raw materials such as rubber, cotton and minerals, and for markets for manufactured goods [1] [1]. Strategic motives — control of routes such as the Suez Canal and the Cape, and of coaling stations for naval power [1] [1]. National prestige and rivalry — colonies were a mark of great-power status, and each power seized territory to deny it to a rival, accelerating the scramble [1] [1]. Ideological and religious motives — the “civilising mission” and missionary activity, which offered a moral justification for conquest [1] [1].

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Where marks are usually lost

• Describing the Vienna settlement without linking measures to containing France.
• Giving Garibaldi sole credit for Italian unification.
• Explaining the Eastern Question without the strategic interests of the powers.
• Listing imperial motives without explaining the mechanism.