Cambridge A-Level Sociology: Social Identity and Change — Revision Notes (9699)

Social identity is the sense of who we are that comes from belonging to social groups. Section 1.3 of the Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology (9699) syllabus asks for two things: how social class, gender, ethnicity and age construct identity, and how those identities may be changing because of globalisation, increased choice and new or hybrid identities. Exam answers need both halves, with evidence for and against the claim that identity is now freely chosen.

Fuller explanation is in the socialisation, social control and identity study guide.

Syllabus coverage

9699 syllabus (2024–2026), Paper 1, 1.3 Social identity and change:

• Social class, gender, ethnicity and age as elements in the construction of social identity.
• How social class, gender, ethnicity and age identities may be changing due to globalisation, increased choice and the creation of new/hybrid identities.

Key terms

Term	Definition
Social identity	How individuals see themselves and are seen by others, based on group membership
Ascribed identity	An identity given at birth (sex category, ethnicity, often class of origin)
Achieved identity	An identity gained through action or choice (occupation, lifestyle)
Hybrid identity	An identity combining elements of two or more cultures
Globalisation	Growing interconnectedness of societies through trade, media, migration and technology
Hegemonic masculinity	The dominant, most valued form of masculinity in a society (Connell, 1987)
Crisis of masculinity	Loss of traditional male roles, especially through decline of manual work
Diaspora	A population dispersed from its homeland that keeps cultural links to it
Consumer identity	An identity built from what people buy and display

How each element constructs identity

Social class

• Traditional view: class identity comes from occupation and shared community, as in working-class mining or factory towns.
• Pierre Bourdieu’s ideas of economic, cultural and social capital explain how class is reproduced through taste, education and networks.
• Mike Savage and colleagues’ Great British Class Survey (2013) identified seven classes, from an “elite” to a “precariat”, using all three capitals.

Gender

• Ann Oakley (1972) separated sex (biological) from gender (social).
• Socialisation through manipulation and canalisation produces gendered identities.
• R.W. Connell (1987) describes several masculinities ranked under a hegemonic form.

Ethnicity

• Ethnicity is a shared culture, language, religion or history, not a biological category.
• Ethnic identity can be strengthened by family, religion and community institutions, and by experiences of racism.

Age

• Life stages (childhood, youth, adulthood, old age) are socially constructed and vary between societies and over time.
• Jane Pilcher’s Age and Generation in Modern Britain (1995) argues age is a basis for both identity and inequality.

How identities are changing

Change named in 1.3	Argument	Counter-argument
Globalisation	Global media and migration spread new styles and values; identities become less tied to place	Global culture may produce cultural defence, strengthening local or religious identity
Increased choice	Postmodernists say identity is chosen through consumption and lifestyle; Pakulski and Waters (The Death of Class, 1996)	Structural sociologists say class, gender and ethnicity still limit choices; consumption needs money
New/hybrid identities	Stuart Hall and Homi Bhabha (The Location of Culture, 1994) describe identities mixed from more than one culture	Hybridity may be stronger among the young and urban; many people keep single, traditional identities
Gender change	Women’s paid work and education have widened femininities; Mac an Ghaill (The Making of Men, 1994) describes a crisis of masculinity	Gender inequality in pay and domestic labour persists, so change is partial
Age change	Longer life expectancy and consumer markets create new identities in later life and extended youth	Older people still face ageism; youth transitions depend on class

Worked example: a 6-mark “explain the view” answer

Quotation (practice): “Social class is no longer an important source of identity.”

Answer plan:

1. Explain the view: postmodernists argue that consumption, lifestyle and leisure now define people more than occupation, so class consciousness has weakened (Pakulski and Waters, 1996).
2. Develop with a reason: decline of manual industry and traditional working-class communities has reduced shared class experiences.
3. Develop with a second reason: globalisation and media provide identities (fans, online communities, brands) that cut across class.

Each point names a concept, explains it and links it back to identity, which is what the AO2 “interpretation and application” marks reward.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Describing identity without change. 1.3 has two bullets; answers that only explain how identity is formed miss half the content.
• Treating “hybrid” as meaning “mixed race”. Hybrid identity is cultural, not biological.
• Assuming globalisation only homogenises. It can also produce cultural defence and revitalisation; show both.
• Ignoring age. It is listed alongside class, gender and ethnicity and is often the least prepared.
• Unsupported postmodern claims. Always weigh “free choice” against structural constraints.

Quick self-test

1. Define hybrid identity and give an example.
2. Name two capitals Bourdieu used to explain class identity.
3. What did Pakulski and Waters argue in 1996?
4. Give one reason masculinity may be in crisis.
5. Give one reason age identity is socially constructed.

Frequently asked questions

Is identity chosen or given? Sociologists disagree. Postmodernists stress choice, while structural sociologists stress the limits set by class, gender and ethnicity; the best answers show identity as both chosen and constrained.

What is the strongest evidence that class still matters? Surveys such as the Great British Class Survey (2013) still find clear class groupings, and class remains linked to educational and health outcomes.

How does this link to Paper 4? Paper 4 section 7.2 develops globalisation and identity (cultural defence, hybridity, Westernisation) in more depth.

Sources

Cambridge International, Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699 syllabus for 2024, 2025 and 2026, Paper 1 section 1.3. Studies are named with years in the text.

Related pages: social identity and change practice questions | Paper 1 revision notes | research methods, design and issues guide