AQA A-level Sociology (7192): Theory and Methods – Study Guide

Theory and Methods is the part of AQA A-level Sociology (7192) that asks how sociologists know what they know, and how they explain society. The specification sets out the same list of Theory and Methods content twice — as 3.1.3 in Paper 1 and 3.3.2 in Paper 3 — so one body of knowledge is examined on two papers: a 10-mark question in Paper 1, and 30 marks in Paper 3. It covers research methods and sources of data, positivism and interpretivism, the major sociological theories, modernity and post-modernity, whether sociology is a science, values, and sociology’s relationship with social policy.

For applying methods to education specifically, see the Methods in Context study guide.

Specification coverage

AQA AS and A-level Sociology specification (7191/7192), A-level content 3.1.3 and 3.3.2 Theory and Methods (identical lists). Students must examine:

1. quantitative and qualitative methods of research; research design
2. sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews, participant and non-participant observation, experiments, documents and official statistics
3. the distinction between primary and secondary data, and between quantitative and qualitative data
4. the relationship between positivism, interpretivism and sociological methods; the nature of “social facts”
5. the theoretical, practical and ethical considerations influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and the conduct of research
6. consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories
7. the concepts of modernity and post-modernity in relation to sociological theory
8. the nature of science and the extent to which Sociology can be regarded as scientific
9. the relationship between theory and methods
10. debates about subjectivity, objectivity and value freedom
11. the relationship between Sociology and social policy.

Assessment: Paper 1 (Education with Theory and Methods) includes Theory and Methods extended writing worth 10 marks; Paper 3 (Crime and Deviance with Theory and Methods) includes Theory and Methods extended writing worth 30 marks.

How do research methods and sources of data compare? (points 1–3)

Method / source	Data	Strengths	Limitations
Questionnaires	Primary, quantitative	Large samples; reliable; easy to analyse	Low validity; low response rates; imposition of categories
Structured interviews	Primary, quantitative	Standardised; higher response	Interviewer bias; limited depth
Unstructured interviews	Primary, qualitative	Rapport; depth; validity	Time, cost, small samples; hard to compare
Participant observation	Primary, qualitative	Natural behaviour; verstehen	Access; going native; ethics if covert; hard to replicate
Non-participant observation	Primary	Less influence on group	Observer effect; less insight into meaning
Laboratory experiments	Primary, quantitative	Control of variables; cause and effect	Artificial; ethical limits; small samples
Field experiments	Primary	More natural	Less control; ethical issues of consent
Documents (public and personal)	Secondary, usually qualitative	Access to past; cheap	Authenticity, credibility, representativeness, meaning — the four criteria from John Scott (A Matter of Record, 1990)
Official statistics	Secondary, quantitative	Large scale; trends; free	Socially constructed; definitions change; dark figures

Research design includes choosing a topic, forming hypotheses or research questions, operationalising concepts, sampling, piloting and analysing data.

What is the difference between positivism and interpretivism? (point 4)

Positivism — associated with Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim — holds that society is an objective reality made of social facts: “ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the individual” that constrain behaviour (Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, 1895). Sociologists should use scientific, quantitative methods to discover causal laws. Durkheim’s Suicide (1897) used official statistics to show that suicide rates varied with social integration and regulation.

Interpretivism — influenced by Max Weber’s idea of verstehen — argues that people act on the meanings they give to situations, so sociology must understand those meanings using qualitative methods. J. Maxwell Atkinson (Discovering Suicide, 1978) argued that suicide statistics are the product of coroners’ interpretations, and Jack Douglas (The Social Meanings of Suicide, 1967) called for studying the meanings behind suicidal acts.

What shapes the choice of topic and method? (point 5)

• Theoretical: positivists favour reliable, quantitative methods; interpretivists favour valid, qualitative ones; a researcher’s theoretical perspective shapes which questions seem important.
• Practical: time, money, funding bodies’ requirements, access, the researcher’s personal characteristics and skills.
• Ethical: the British Sociological Association’s Statement of Ethical Practice stresses informed consent, confidentiality, avoiding harm and care with vulnerable groups; covert methods raise particular problems of deception.

What are consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories? (point 6)

Theory	Type	Core idea	Key names
Functionalism	Structural, consensus	Society as a system of interrelated parts based on shared values	Durkheim; Talcott Parsons; Robert Merton (manifest and latent functions)
Marxism	Structural, conflict	Society shaped by class conflict between bourgeoisie and proletariat; ideology legitimates exploitation	Karl Marx; Louis Althusser (ideological and repressive state apparatuses); Antonio Gramsci (hegemony)
Feminism	Mainly conflict	Society structured by patriarchy; liberal, radical, Marxist and difference feminisms disagree on causes and solutions	Ann Oakley; Sylvia Walby (Theorizing Patriarchy, 1990)
Symbolic interactionism	Social action	People create society through interaction and shared meanings	George Herbert Mead; Herbert Blumer (Symbolic Interactionism, 1969)
Phenomenology / ethnomethodology	Social action	Studies how people make sense of the world and produce social order in everyday life	Alfred Schutz; Harold Garfinkel (Studies in Ethnomethodology, 1967)
Structuration	Bridges structure and action	Structure and agency reproduce each other	Anthony Giddens (The Constitution of Society, 1984)

What are modernity and post-modernity? (point 7)

Modernity — the era from the Enlightenment and industrialisation, marked by the nation state, capitalism, rationality, science and belief in progress. Classical theories (“grand narratives” or “meta-narratives”) such as functionalism and Marxism are products of modernity.

Post-modernity — Jean-François Lyotard (The Postmodern Condition, 1979) described an “incredulity towards meta-narratives”; Jean Baudrillard argued that media signs create hyperreality. Society is said to be fragmented, media-saturated and based on consumer choice and identity.

Late modern theorists reject the claim that modernity has ended: Giddens argues we live in late or “high” modernity marked by reflexivity; Ulrich Beck (Risk Society, 1986) describes a society preoccupied with manufactured risks.

Is sociology a science? (point 8)

• Positivists: yes — sociology can and should follow the logic of the natural sciences.
• Karl Popper (The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934; English 1959): science is defined by falsification; he criticised Marxism as unfalsifiable.
• Thomas Kuhn (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962): science works within paradigms; sociology is “pre-paradigmatic” because sociologists disagree on fundamentals.
• Realists — Russell Keat and John Urry (Social Theory as Science, 1975) and Andrew Sayer — distinguish open and closed systems; sociology, like meteorology, studies open systems and can still be scientific in seeking underlying causes.
• Interpretivists: sociology studies meaningful action, so natural-science methods are inappropriate.

How do theory and methods relate? (point 9)

Theoretical perspective often shapes method choice: structural theories and positivism lean towards quantitative methods; social action theories and interpretivism lean towards qualitative ones. But the link is not fixed — many researchers use methodological pluralism and triangulation, and practical factors may override theory.

Can sociology be value-free? (point 10)

• Classical positivists (Comte, Durkheim) believed sociology could be objective and should guide society.
• Weber argued values inevitably shape choice of topic and interpretation, but researchers should be value-free in data collection.
• Committed sociology — Howard Becker (“Whose side are we on?”, 1967) argued sociologists should side with the underdog; Alvin Gouldner (“Anti-Minotaur: The Myth of a Value-Free Sociology”, 1962) said claims of value freedom often hid support for the powerful.
• Feminists such as Oakley argue research should serve women’s interests.

What is the relationship between sociology and social policy? (point 11)

• Positivists and functionalists see sociology providing objective evidence to solve problems through piecemeal social engineering.
• Social democratic sociologists such as Peter Townsend (Poverty in the United Kingdom, 1979) argued research should lead to policies redistributing resources; the Black Report (1980) on health inequalities is a classic example of research meant to shape policy.
• Marxists argue policy in capitalist states mainly serves capitalism.
• Feminists influenced policies on equal pay and domestic violence, but critics say liberal reforms do not end patriarchy.
• New Right writers such as Charles Murray argue welfare policy creates dependency.
• Postmodernists doubt that sociology can produce the objective knowledge needed for policy.

Practical constraints — funding, electoral considerations and governments’ ideologies — limit how much research actually influences policy.

Frequently asked questions

Why is the same content listed twice? AQA assesses Theory and Methods in both Paper 1 and Paper 3, so the specification repeats the same list under 3.1.3 and 3.3.2.

How is Theory and Methods different from Methods in Context? Theory and Methods is assessed in the abstract; Methods in Context (Paper 1) requires applying methods to a specific education issue.

Which debates are most often examined? Positivism versus interpretivism, sociology as a science, value freedom, and the usefulness of major theories are common focuses; prepare all eleven points.

Sources

• AQA, AS and A-level Sociology specification (7191, 7192), Version 1.2, A-level subject content 3.1.3 and 3.3.2 Theory and Methods and Assessments (Papers 1 and 3).
• Works are named with publication years in the text.

Related pages: Theory and Methods revision notes | Theory and Methods practice questions | A-level course structure