AQA GCSE Sociology (8192): Crime and Deviance – Revision Notes

These notes condense two sub-sections of AQA GCSE Sociology (8192) Crime and deviance: 3.5.1 The social construction of crime and deviance and 3.5.3 Criminal and deviant behaviour. Crime and deviance are defined by society and change over time and place; Merton explains crime through anomie, Becker through labelling, Albert Cohen through delinquent subcultures and Carlen through the breakdown of class and gender “deals”; and class, gender, ethnicity and age all shape who offends — or who is recorded as offending.

Full explanation: AQA GCSE crime and deviance study guide.

Specification coverage

• 3.5.1 — social construction of crime and deviance; explanations including anomie, labelling, structural, subcultural and interactionist theories; interactionist, functionalist, feminist and Marxist perspectives; key ideas of Merton and Becker.
• 3.5.3 — factors affecting criminal and deviant behaviour (social class, gender, ethnicity, age); public debates (violent crime, sentencing, young offenders, the prison system, media coverage); perspectives; key ideas of Albert Cohen and Carlen.

Key terms

Term	Definition
Crime	Behaviour that breaks the law
Deviance	Behaviour that breaks social norms
Social construction	Defined by society, varying with time, place and situation
Anomie	Normlessness; “anything goes” in pursuit of success (Merton)
Innovation	Accepting goals but using illegitimate means (Merton)
Label	A name or identity applied to someone by others (Becker)
Master status	An identity that overrides all others, e.g. “criminal”
Self-fulfilling prophecy	Acting in line with a label until it comes true
Deviant career	Progression into deviance after labelling (Becker)
Status frustration	Frustration at being unable to gain status legitimately (Cohen)
Delinquent subculture	Group with values rewarding delinquency (Cohen)
Class deal / gender deal	Rewards offered to women for conformity (Carlen)
Control theory	People conform when the rewards of conformity outweigh crime

Key sociologists at a glance

Sociologist	Perspective	Main idea	Criticism
Merton (“Social Structure and Anomie”, 1938)	Functionalist	Strain between success goals and means → five adaptations	Ignores power; assumes consensus; overstates working-class crime
Becker (Outsiders, 1963)	Interactionist	Deviance is labelled; label → master status → deviant career	Does not explain the first act; may ignore victims
Albert Cohen (Delinquent Boys, 1955)	Functionalist	Educational failure → status frustration → delinquent subculture	Boys may reject mainstream goals rather than share them
Carlen (Women, Crime and Poverty, 1988)	Feminist	When class and gender deals fail, crime becomes viable	Small sample of 39 women

Merton’s five adaptations: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion.

Factors affecting crime (3.5.3)

• Class: blocked opportunity, subcultures, labelling; Marxists highlight crimes of the powerful.
• Gender: men offend more; women more controlled (Heidensohn); Carlen on women offenders.
• Ethnicity: over-representation in some statistics debated — discrimination or deprivation?
• Age: offending peaks in teenage years; young people more visible to police.

Public debates

Debate	Key question
Violent crime	Is it rising, and what causes it?
Sentencing	Are sentences fair, consistent and effective?
Young offenders	Should they be punished or rehabilitated?
Prison system	Does prison reduce reoffending?
Media coverage	Does reporting exaggerate crime and fear?

Perspectives summary

• Functionalist: crime from strain and subculture; some deviance reinforces norms.
• Marxist: laws reflect ruling-class interests; working class criminalised.
• Feminist: patriarchal control explains low female crime; women as victims.
• Interactionist: labelling by powerful agents creates deviance.

Worked example: a 4-mark “identify and explain” answer

Identify and explain one factor that may lead working-class boys to commit crime. (practice)

• Identify (1): status frustration.
• Explain (3): Albert Cohen argued working-class boys share mainstream goals but often fail at school (1); unable to gain status legitimately, they feel frustrated (1); they form delinquent subcultures in which stealing and vandalism earn status from peers (1).

Worked example: a 12-mark plan

Discuss how far sociologists would agree that working-class people commit more crime than other groups. (practice)

1. Agree: official statistics show working-class people over-represented; Merton — blocked means lead to innovation; Albert Cohen — status frustration and delinquent subcultures; Carlen — working-class women turn to crime when the class deal fails.
2. Disagree: Becker — police label working-class youths more often, so statistics reflect reactions; Marxists — white-collar and corporate crimes by the powerful are hidden and rarely prosecuted; the dark figure means recorded crime is a poor guide.
3. Conclusion: working-class people are more likely to be recorded as offenders, but whether they commit more crime is unclear.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Confusing Albert Cohen (delinquent subcultures) with Stanley Cohen (moral panics, not named in 8192).
• Listing Merton’s adaptations without explaining goals and means.
• Saying Becker thinks deviants are “innocent” — he argues deviance is created by reactions.
• Forgetting Carlen’s method (unstructured interviews) and sample size, often useful for evaluation.
• Not stating the perspective of each key sociologist.

Quick self-test

1. Define deviance and give an example that is not a crime.
2. Which adaptation describes a drug addict who has dropped out?
3. What is a master status?
4. What are Carlen’s two deals?
5. Name two public debates about crime in the specification.

Frequently asked questions

Do I need to know Stanley Cohen? He is not named in 8192, but moral panic ideas can be credited where relevant; the named sociologists are the priority.

How is crime “socially constructed”? Societies decide which acts are crimes, and these decisions differ between places and change over time.

Which perspective is Carlen? Feminist, using control theory.

Related pages: social construction of crime practice questions | crime and stratification revision notes