Cambridge A Level World History (9489): European option: European history, 1919-41 – Study Guide

Between the wars, three of Europe’s largest states fell under dictatorships that claimed to offer an answer to economic crisis and political instability. This depth study asks you to understand how each regime came to power, how it kept control, what it did with the economy and society, and how its foreign policy led towards war. Good answers compare the regimes while respecting how different they were.

Where this fits in the specification

This is the European option among the depth studies in Cambridge 9489. The three sections are Mussolini’s Italy, 1919-41, Stalin’s Russia, 1924-41 and Hitler’s Germany, 1929-41. Depth study questions ask for sustained argument supported by precise knowledge, so you need accurate dates and examples, and a clear line of argument on each key question. Confirm the paper and question style in the current syllabus and specimen papers.

It is examined on Paper 4: Depth study (1 hour 45 minutes, 60 marks, 30% of the A Level). You answer two questions from a choice of three, all on your chosen option, each worth 30 marks; questions use the command words assess and evaluate, and marks are split equally between historical knowledge (AO1) and explanation, analysis and judgement (AO2).

Mussolini’s Italy, 1919-41

Rise to power. Post-war Italy was unsettled by economic problems, disappointment at the peace settlement and fear of socialism. Mussolini’s Fascists used violence and political bargaining. The March on Rome in October 1922 ended with King Victor Emmanuel III inviting Mussolini to form a government, a change that was legal in form but obtained under threat of force.

Consolidation. The Acerbo Law of 1923 gave a large majority of seats to the party with the biggest vote, and the 1924 election was marked by intimidation. The murder of the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti in 1924 created a crisis, which Mussolini survived. In January 1925 he declared that he took responsibility, and over the following years opposition parties were suppressed and the press was controlled.

Control and ideology. The regime used the OVRA secret police, propaganda, youth organisations and the cult of Il Duce. The Lateran Treaties of 1929 settled relations with the Catholic Church and created Vatican City. The Corporate State aimed to organise employers and workers into corporations, though in practice it favoured employers.

Economy. Policies included the Battle for Grain (1925), the revaluation of the lira known as Quota 90 (1926) and the drive for self-sufficiency. Judge success by results, not slogans.

Foreign policy. The invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 led to League sanctions and moved Italy closer to Germany. The Rome-Berlin Axis followed in 1936, anti-Jewish laws in 1938 and the Pact of Steel in 1939. Italy entered the Second World War in June 1940.

Stalin’s Russia, 1924-41

Rise to power. After Lenin’s death in January 1924, Stalin used his position as General Secretary and the party’s ban on factions to defeat rivals such as Trotsky, then Zinoviev and Kamenev, then Bukharin. Control of appointments mattered as much as ideas.

Economic change. The New Economic Policy gave way to the First Five-Year Plan from 1928, which prioritised heavy industry. Collectivisation from 1929 forced peasants into collective farms and was accompanied by the campaign against so-called kulaks. A severe famine in 1932-33 followed. You should be able to balance industrial growth, in sectors such as coal and steel, with the human cost and with the problems of quality and waste.

Terror and control. The murder of Sergei Kirov in December 1934 was followed by wider arrests. The show trials of 1936-38 and the purges of the party, the army and the NKVD itself led to mass arrests, executions and the expansion of the Gulag. The 1936 constitution looked democratic but operated in a one-party state. Propaganda, censorship and the cult of Stalin supported control.

Foreign policy. The Soviet Union joined the League in 1934 and promoted collective security, but the Munich settlement in 1938 left Moscow isolated. The Nazi-Soviet Pact of August 1939 was followed by the invasion of Poland and, on 22 June 1941, by Operation Barbarossa.

Hitler’s Germany, 1929-41

Rise to power. The Wall Street Crash and the Depression produced mass unemployment and political polarisation. The Nazis’ share of the vote rose sharply between 1928 and 1932. Hitler became Chancellor on 30 January 1933 after political deals among conservative elites who thought they could control him.

Consolidation. After the Reichstag fire on 27 February 1933 an emergency decree suspended civil rights. The Enabling Act of 23 March 1933 let the government make laws without the Reichstag. Trade unions and other parties were banned and the Night of the Long Knives on 30 June 1934 removed the SA leadership and other opponents. After Hindenburg’s death in August 1934 Hitler combined the offices of Chancellor and President.

Control and society. The Gestapo, the SS, propaganda under Goebbels, control of education and youth through the Hitler Youth, and policies on women and religion all supported the regime. Persecution of Jewish people escalated through the Nuremberg Laws (1935) and the violence of Kristallnacht (9-10 November 1938).

Economy. Rearmament, public works and Schacht’s and then Goering’s economic planning reduced unemployment, partly through methods such as conscription and the exclusion of some groups from official figures. Treat reported figures with caution.

Foreign policy. Key stages include the remilitarisation of the Rhineland (1936), the Anschluss (March 1938), Munich (September 1938), the occupation of Czechoslovakia (March 1939), the Nazi-Soviet Pact and the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939.

Comparing the regimes

Question	Italy	Soviet Union	Germany
Route to power	Appointed by the king after pressure	Party struggle after Lenin	Appointed Chancellor, then seized control
Dominant tool	Propaganda and partial coercion	Mass terror and party control	Terror, propaganda and popular support
Economic aim	Self-sufficiency	Rapid industrialisation	Rearmament

Comparisons earn credit when you explain why these differences existed, for example the weaker party hold on institutions in Italy than in the other two states.

Worked example: a short chronology calculation

Use dates to test claims. Between Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933 and the Enabling Act on 23 March 1933, how many days passed?

• 30 January to 31 January: 1 day.
• February 1933 (not a leap year): 28 days.
• 1 March to 23 March: 23 days.

Total: 1 + 28 + 23 = 52 days.

This shows how quickly legal power was concentrated, but the point for an essay is the cause: emergency powers after the Reichstag fire (27 February) and the political pressure applied to the Reichstag.

For a planning example, take the question “How far was terror the main reason Stalin stayed in power?” A good plan has three paragraphs on terror, party control and the cult of personality or achievements, each linked to the question, plus a judgement on which was most important.

Common mistakes

• Telling the story of the rise to power without addressing the question asked.
• Confusing dates, such as the Reichstag fire and the Enabling Act, or Kirov’s murder and the show trials.
• Describing terror without explaining how it produced control.
• Accepting regime statistics at face value.
• Treating the three regimes as identical.

Exam technique

Cambridge command words include assess, how far and to what extent. Open with a direct answer, structure paragraphs around factors, use precise evidence and weigh the factors against each other. A short, reasoned conclusion should answer the question, not repeat the narrative.

Check your understanding

1. Which event in October 1922 led to Mussolini becoming prime minister? The March on Rome and the king’s invitation to form a government.
2. What did the Lateran Treaties of 1929 do? They settled relations between the Italian state and the Catholic Church and created Vatican City.
3. Name the first of Stalin’s major economic programmes that began in 1928. The First Five-Year Plan.
4. Which event in December 1934 preceded the wider purges? The murder of Sergei Kirov.
5. What did the Enabling Act of 23 March 1933 allow? The government to make laws without the Reichstag’s approval.
6. On what date did Germany invade Poland? 1 September 1939.
7. How many days separate 30 January 1933 and 23 March 1933? 52 days.
8. Why should you be careful with Nazi unemployment figures? They excluded some groups and were affected by conscription and rearmament, so they overstate genuine recovery.

Frequently asked questions

How is the depth study examined? On Paper 4 (1 hour 45 minutes, 60 marks, 30% of the A Level): you answer two 30-mark essays from a choice of three on your option, using the command words assess or evaluate.

What did the Acerbo Law do? Passed in 1923, it gave two-thirds of the seats in the Italian parliament to the party with the most votes, provided it won at least 25%.

How did Stalin defeat his rivals? As General Secretary he controlled party appointments and used the ban on factions to defeat Trotsky, then Zinoviev, Kamenev and Bukharin, by 1929.