Cambridge A Level World History (9489): International option: International history, 1909-94 – Study Guide

This option looks at three very different stories of how power was held and lost in the second half of the twentieth century: the Soviet Union’s control of Eastern Europe, the dismantling of white minority rule in southern Africa, and decolonisation in South-East Asia. Each asks why systems of control that looked strong gave way, and what part was played by resistance, outside pressure and the choices of leaders.

Where this fits in the specification

This is the international option among the depth studies in Cambridge 9489, with three sections: the Soviet empire in Eastern Europe, 1953-91; the end of minority rule in South Africa and Zimbabwe, 1948-94; and the route to independence in Malaysia and Indonesia, c.1909-67. Depth study questions expect sustained argument and secure detail. Check the syllabus for the paper and format.

It is examined on Paper 4: Depth study (1 hour 45 minutes, 60 marks, 30% of the A Level). You answer two questions from a choice of three, all on your chosen option, each worth 30 marks; questions use the command words assess and evaluate, and marks are split equally between historical knowledge (AO1) and explanation, analysis and judgement (AO2).

The Soviet empire in Eastern Europe, 1953-91

Methods of control. The Soviet Union kept influence through communist parties, the security services, economic links such as Comecon and the military alliance of the Warsaw Pact (1955).

Challenges to control.

• Stalin died in March 1953, and in June 1953 workers’ protests in East Germany were put down with Soviet tanks.
• In February 1956 Khrushchev’s secret speech criticised Stalin. In October-November 1956 the Hungarian Uprising under Imre Nagy was crushed by Soviet forces.
• The Berlin Wall, built in August 1961, was a response to the flow of East Germans to the West.
• The Prague Spring of 1968 under Dubcek sought “socialism with a human face” and ended with the Warsaw Pact invasion in August. The Brezhnev Doctrine claimed a right to intervene to defend socialism.
• The Helsinki Accords of 1975 included human rights commitments that dissidents used.
• In Poland, the independent trade union Solidarity emerged in 1980. Martial law was declared in December 1981.

Collapse. Gorbachev became leader in 1985 and introduced glasnost and perestroika. He signalled that the USSR would not use force to prop up allies. In 1989, reform in Poland and Hungary, the opening of the border and the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 led to revolutions across the region. The USSR itself dissolved in December 1991. Weigh internal weakness, economic stagnation, nationalism, the role of Gorbachev and Western pressure.

The end of minority rule in South Africa and Zimbabwe, 1948-94

South Africa. The National Party won the 1948 election and introduced apartheid through laws such as the Population Registration Act and the Group Areas Act (both 1950). Resistance included the Defiance Campaign and the Freedom Charter of 1955. At Sharpeville in March 1960 police killed protesters, after which the ANC and PAC were banned. Mandela and others were sentenced to life imprisonment at the Rivonia trial in 1964. The Soweto uprising began in June 1976, and Steve Biko died in police custody in 1977. In the 1980s there were township revolts, states of emergency and growing international sanctions. President de Klerk unbanned the ANC and freed Mandela on 11 February 1990. Negotiations led to the first non-racial election in April 1994, in which Mandela became president.

Rhodesia and Zimbabwe. In November 1965 Ian Smith’s government made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence to preserve white minority rule. Britain and the UN imposed sanctions, but these were weakened by leaks, especially through South Africa and Mozambique. A guerrilla war, fought by ZANU and ZAPU forces, intensified in the 1970s. After the Lancaster House talks (December 1979), elections in 1980 brought Robert Mugabe to power and Zimbabwe became independent in April 1980.

Themes. Compare internal resistance, armed struggle, economic pressure and international isolation, and the role of changes in neighbouring states.

The route to independence in Malaysia and Indonesia, c.1909-67

Malaya. The 1909 treaty between Britain and Siam transferred control of several northern Malay states to British influence. Colonial rule rested on the Straits Settlements, the Federated and Unfederated Malay States and an economy based on tin and rubber, with Malay, Chinese and Indian communities. Japan occupied Malaya from 1942 to 1945, which weakened colonial prestige. After the war Britain’s plan for a Malayan Union met Malay opposition and gave way to the Federation of Malaya in 1948. The Malayan Emergency (1948-60) was a counter-insurgency against the Malayan Communist Party. Independence (Merdeka) came on 31 August 1957 under Tunku Abdul Rahman. In September 1963 Malaysia was formed with Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore; Singapore left in August 1965.

Indonesia. The Dutch East Indies developed an increasingly organised nationalist movement. Japan occupied the islands from 1942, and on 17 August 1945 Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed independence. A war and negotiations with the Dutch followed, with the Netherlands recognising independence in December 1949. Sukarno introduced Guided Democracy from 1959. Konfrontasi, the confrontation with Malaysia, ran from 1963 to 1966. After the events of 30 September 1965, power moved to General Suharto, who formally took over the presidency in 1967.

Themes. Compare peaceful negotiation with armed struggle, the role of the Second World War and the effect of ethnic and regional divisions.

Worked example: a duration check

How long did the Malayan Emergency last, and how does it compare with the period between Indonesia’s proclamation and Dutch recognition?

• Malayan Emergency: 1948 to 1960 = 12 years.
• Proclamation on 17 August 1945 to recognition in December 1949: 4 years and about 4 months.

The Emergency lasted nearly three times as long as the fight with the Dutch (12 / 4.33 is about 2.8). The point to make is not the number alone but its meaning: Britain’s counter-insurgency was long, while it conceded independence in 1957 even as the fighting continued.

For an essay plan on “Why did the Soviet empire in Eastern Europe collapse in 1989?”, use separate paragraphs for economic weakness, Gorbachev’s reforms and the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine, popular opposition, and external pressure, then rank them.

Common mistakes

• Writing narrative of events without answering the question.
• Mixing up Sharpeville (1960), Rivonia (1963-64) and Soweto (1976).
• Treating the three sections as unrelated rather than drawing out comparisons.
• Giving one cause for the collapse of the Soviet empire without weighing alternatives.
• Ignoring the Second World War as a factor in Asian decolonisation.

Exam technique

Take command words such as assess, how far and to what extent seriously. Open with a judgement, devote a paragraph to each factor with precise evidence, weigh factors against each other and conclude clearly.

Check your understanding

1. What was the Warsaw Pact? The military alliance of the Soviet bloc, formed in 1955.
2. What did the Brezhnev Doctrine claim? A right for the USSR to intervene to defend socialism in other communist states.
3. On what date was Mandela freed? 11 February 1990.
4. What did Ian Smith’s government do in November 1965? It issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain.
5. Which agreement of December 1979 led to elections in Zimbabwe? The Lancaster House agreement.
6. When did Malaya become independent? 31 August 1957.
7. What was Konfrontasi? Indonesia’s confrontation with the new state of Malaysia from 1963 to 1966.
8. How long did the Malayan Emergency last? 12 years, from 1948 to 1960.

Frequently asked questions

How is the depth study examined? On Paper 4 (1 hour 45 minutes, 60 marks, 30% of the A Level): you answer two 30-mark essays from a choice of three on your option, using the command words assess or evaluate.

What are the three sections? The Soviet empire in Eastern Europe, 1953–91; the end of minority rule in South Africa and Zimbabwe, 1948–94; and the route to independence in Malaysia and Indonesia, c.1909–67.

How should an essay on the collapse of Soviet control be planned? With separate paragraphs on economic weakness, Gorbachev’s reforms and the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine, popular opposition and external pressure, then a ranking of the factors.