Cambridge A Level World History (9489): American option: The USA, 1945-93 – Study Guide

Between 1945 and 1993 the United States was the leading Western power in the Cold War, an affluent consumer society and a country divided over race, war and the role of government. This depth study asks you to follow three periods: the post-war years under Truman and Eisenhower, the turbulent period from 1961 to 1974, and the years from 1974 to 1993, when conservatism and the end of the Cold War reshaped politics.

Where this fits in the specification

This is the American option among the depth studies in Cambridge 9489. It is organised into three sections: Truman, Eisenhower and post-war USA, 1945-61; a time of challenges, 1961-74; and the USA, 1974-93. Questions usually require analysis across a period, so look for themes: presidential power, civil rights, the economy, foreign policy and the Cold War, and public attitudes. Confirm the paper and format in the current syllabus.

It is examined on Paper 4: Depth study (1 hour 45 minutes, 60 marks, 30% of the A Level). You answer two questions from a choice of three, all on your chosen option, each worth 30 marks; questions use the command words assess and evaluate, and marks are split equally between historical knowledge (AO1) and explanation, analysis and judgement (AO2).

Truman, Eisenhower and post-war USA, 1945-61

Truman (1945-53). Truman faced the transition from war to peace, with strikes and inflation. The Taft-Hartley Act (1947) restricted union powers and passed over his veto. His Fair Deal (1949) proposed extensions of the New Deal, with limited success because of a conservative Congress. In foreign policy, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan of 1947, the Berlin airlift and the creation of NATO in 1949 committed the US to containment. The Korean War began in 1950 and ended in an armistice in 1953.

The Red Scare. Fears of communism grew with the Soviet atomic test (1949), the communist victory in China (1949) and spy cases. Senator Joseph McCarthy’s claims of communists in government, beginning in 1950, gave his name to McCarthyism. His influence declined after the Senate censured him in 1954.

Eisenhower (1953-61). Eisenhower’s “modern Republicanism” accepted much of the New Deal while seeking a balanced budget. The Interstate Highway Act (1956) expanded roads. Prosperity and consumer culture were visible in suburban growth and television. In foreign policy, Eisenhower and Secretary of State Dulles emphasised nuclear deterrence. In his farewell address in January 1961 he warned about the influence of the “military-industrial complex.”

Civil rights. Brown v Board of Education (1954) ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. The Montgomery bus boycott (1955-56) brought Martin Luther King to prominence. In 1957 Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce desegregation at Little Rock. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was limited in effect. Assess how far federal action was slow and reluctant.

A time of challenges: the USA, 1961-74

Kennedy (1961-63). The New Frontier promised change, but Congress blocked many proposals. The Bay of Pigs failure (1961) and the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962) shaped foreign policy. Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963.

Johnson (1963-69). Johnson’s Great Society included the Civil Rights Act (1964), the Voting Rights Act (1965), Medicare and Medicaid and the War on Poverty. The Economic Opportunity Act, Head Start and other measures had mixed results, and costs rose with the war in Vietnam.

Civil rights and radicalism. Key episodes include the sit-ins, the Freedom Rides, the Birmingham campaign, the March on Washington (August 1963) and Selma (1965). The movement then divided, with Black Power and urban riots. Martin Luther King was assassinated in April 1968. Protest movements also grew among students, women and other groups.

Vietnam. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (August 1964) enabled escalation. The Tet Offensive in January 1968 damaged public confidence even though it was a military setback for communist forces. Johnson did not seek re-election.

Nixon (1969-74). Nixon won in 1968 with the support of voters who wanted order. He pursued Vietnamisation and the Paris Peace Agreement of January 1973, and detente with the USSR and China. The break-in at the Watergate building in June 1972 and the subsequent cover-up led to impeachment proceedings, and Nixon resigned on 9 August 1974. Roe v Wade (1973) became a lasting source of conflict.

The USA, 1974-93

Ford and Carter (1974-81). Ford pardoned Nixon in 1974. The economy suffered from the oil shock and “stagflation”, a combination of inflation and unemployment. Carter, elected in 1976, achieved the Camp David Accords (1978) but was weakened by economic problems and the Iran hostage crisis (1979-81).

Reagan (1981-89). Reagan’s programme combined tax cuts through the Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981), deregulation, reduced domestic spending and increased defence spending. The Iran-Contra affair (1986) damaged his administration. In foreign policy he moved from hostile rhetoric to negotiation with Gorbachev, including the INF Treaty of 1987.

Bush (1989-93). The Cold War ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) and the dissolution of the USSR (1991). The Gulf War of 1991 followed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) passed, but recession and the breaking of the “no new taxes” pledge contributed to Bush’s defeat in 1992. The Los Angeles riots of 1992 highlighted racial tensions.

Themes to organise your knowledge

• Presidential power: growth in foreign policy and decline after Vietnam and Watergate.
• Civil rights: progress through the courts and Congress, followed by debates on economic equality.
• Economy: post-war growth, then stagflation, then the Reagan revival with growing deficits.
• Foreign policy: containment, detente and the end of the Cold War.

Worked example: using dates to test a claim

Claim: “Johnson’s civil rights legislation was achieved within a year of Kennedy’s death.”

Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963. The Civil Rights Act was passed in July 1964, roughly 8 months later, and the Voting Rights Act in August 1965, roughly 21 months later. So the first statement is true for the Civil Rights Act (about 8 months) but not for the Voting Rights Act (about 21 months).

Check the arithmetic: November 1963 to July 1964 = 8 months (Nov to Jul). November 1963 to August 1965 = 21 months (12 months to November 1964 plus 9 months to August 1965).

For an essay, plan the question “How far did the Great Society succeed?” with paragraphs on civil rights legislation, health and education measures, poverty, and the effect of Vietnam. Conclude that its legal achievements were greater than its effect on poverty.

Common mistakes

• Treating the presidencies as separate stories with no themes.
• Describing civil rights events without linking to federal action.
• Confusing Johnson’s Great Society with Kennedy’s New Frontier.
• Overstating Reagan’s or Nixon’s success without considering costs and limits.
• Neglecting the link between foreign policy and domestic politics.

Exam technique

Paper 4 questions use assess and evaluate. State a position at the start, give separate factors in separate paragraphs, support each with dated evidence, weigh the factors and answer the question in the conclusion.

Check your understanding

1. What was the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947? A law restricting trade union powers, passed over Truman’s veto.
2. What did Brown v Board of Education (1954) decide? That racially segregated public schools were unconstitutional.
3. Which resolution of August 1964 enabled escalation in Vietnam? The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
4. When did Nixon resign? 9 August 1974.
5. What is stagflation? High inflation combined with high unemployment and slow growth.
6. Which treaty did Reagan and Gorbachev sign in 1987? The INF Treaty.
7. How many months passed between November 1963 and August 1965? 21 months.
8. Why was Tet a political turning point? It damaged US public confidence in the war even though communist forces suffered heavy losses.

Frequently asked questions

How is the depth study examined? On Paper 4 (1 hour 45 minutes, 60 marks, 30% of the A Level): you answer two 30-mark essays from a choice of three on your option, using the command words assess or evaluate.

What are the three sections? Truman, Eisenhower and post-war USA, 1945–61; a time of challenges: the USA, 1961–74; and the USA, 1974–93.

How far did the Great Society succeed? Its legal achievements, such as civil rights and Medicare, were greater than its effect on poverty, which the cost of the Vietnam War limited.