Overseas Empires in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge 0470 and 2147)

Key question 1.5 asks why, and with what effects, nations gained and expanded overseas empires in the nineteenth century. Cambridge sets four case areas: the motives for European and US imperialism; French, British and Belgian rule in Africa and its impact on Africans; the events of 1857 in India and how they changed British rule; and the Spanish–American War, after which the USA took over former Spanish colonies. Exam questions reward comparison between case studies and a clear judgement on motives.

Where this fits in 0470 and 2147

This is one of six key questions in Core Content Option A of both Cambridge IGCSE History 0470 and O Level History 2147 (2024–2026). It links forward to key question 1.6, because colonial rivalry, such as the Moroccan crises, raised tension between the Great Powers before 1914. For the whole option, see the IGCSE Nineteenth Century study guide or the O Level version.

Syllabus coverage

The official focus points are:

1. What were the motives behind European and US imperialism?
2. How varied were the impacts of European imperialism on Africans?
3. Why, and with what effects, did Indians resist British rule?
4. Why, and with what effects, did the United States gain former Spanish colonies?

Specified content: economic, military, geopolitical, religious and cultural motives; French assimilation and direct rule (Faidherbe and Senegal); British indirect rule (Lugard and Nigeria); Belgian private imperialism (Leopold II and the Congo); the British in India, 1857 and its consequences; the wars of independence in Cuba and the Philippines, the Spanish–American War and the Treaty of Paris, the US debate over imperialism, American control of the Philippines, and American intervention in Cuba to 1906.

What were the motives for imperialism?

Motive	What it meant	Examples
Economic	Raw materials, markets for factory goods, places to invest	Rubber and ivory from the Congo; palm oil from West Africa; cotton
Military	Naval bases, coaling stations, control of sea routes	Suez Canal (opened 1869); US interest in Pacific bases
Geopolitical	Rivalry and prestige between powers; taking land before a rival did	The “Scramble for Africa”; the Berlin Conference of 1884–85
Religious	Spreading Christianity through missions	David Livingstone; mission schools across Africa
Cultural	Belief in a “civilising mission” and racial superiority	Kipling’s poem “The White Man’s Burden” (1899), written about the Philippines

A strong answer does not treat motives as a list: economic interests often needed strategic and national arguments to win support at home, and missionaries and explorers often arrived before governments did.

How varied was the impact of European rule on Africans?

France in Senegal: assimilation and direct rule

Louis Faidherbe, governor of Senegal in 1854–61 and 1863–65, pushed French control inland from the coast, fought the forces of El Hadj Umar Tall, and in 1857 created the tirailleurs sénégalais, African soldiers in French service. French policy aimed at assimilation: Africans who adopted French language and culture could, in theory, become French citizens, and the coastal Four Communes (Saint-Louis, Gorée, Rufisque and Dakar) elected a deputy to the French parliament. Rule was direct, through French officials. In practice, only a small minority ever gained citizenship; most Africans were subjects, not citizens.

Britain in Nigeria: indirect rule

Frederick Lugard became High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria in 1900, conquered the Sokoto Caliphate by 1903 and then ruled through the existing emirs and their courts and taxes. This indirect rule was cheap and kept local rulers in place, but it strengthened traditional elites and worked badly in the south-east, where there were no comparable chiefs. Lugard oversaw the amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria in 1914 and later set out his ideas in The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1922).

Belgium and the Congo: private imperialism

The Berlin Conference recognised the Congo Free State in 1885 as the personal possession of King Leopold II, not of Belgium. Once demand for rubber rose in the 1890s, Congolese people were forced to meet rubber quotas, enforced by the Force Publique through hostage-taking, mutilation and killing. Millions died from violence, famine and disease, though estimates vary. After reports by the British consul Roger Casement (1904) and campaigning by E. D. Morel’s Congo Reform Association, the Belgian state took the colony over in 1908.

Comparison: French rule replaced local authority, British rule used it, and Leopold’s regime exploited it for profit; the Congo shows the most extreme impact, but all three systems took land, labour and political control from Africans.

Why did Indians resist British rule in 1857, and what changed?

The rising began at Meerut on 10 May 1857, when sepoys of the East India Company’s army rebelled and marched to Delhi, where they proclaimed the elderly Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II as their leader. Fighting spread across northern India, including Kanpur and the siege of Lucknow; the Rani of Jhansi, Lakshmibai, died fighting in 1858.

Causes: rumours that the new Enfield rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat, offending Hindu and Muslim soldiers; annexations of Indian states, including under Lord Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse and the annexation of Awadh (1856); fears of forced conversion and of Western reforms; grievances over pay and service overseas.

Results: the Government of India Act 1858 ended East India Company rule and placed India under the Crown, with a Secretary of State in London and a Viceroy in India. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858) promised religious toleration and an end to annexations. The army was reorganised with a higher proportion of British troops, and Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon, ending the Mughal dynasty. British rule became more cautious about interfering with Indian customs, but more distant from Indians.

Why did the USA gain former Spanish colonies?

• Cuba: a war of independence against Spain began in 1895; harsh Spanish “reconcentration” camps were reported in sensational US newspapers. After the battleship USS Maine exploded in Havana harbour on 15 February 1898, the USA declared war in April.
• The war: Commodore Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay (1 May 1898) and US forces won in Cuba; fighting ended in August.
• Treaty of Paris (December 1898): Spain gave up Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the USA, which paid $20 million for the Philippines.
• The debate in the USA: supporters argued for markets, naval bases and a duty to “uplift” others; the Anti-Imperialist League (including Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie) argued that ruling colonies betrayed American ideals. The Senate ratified the treaty in February 1899 by just over the two-thirds needed.
• The Philippines: Emilio Aguinaldo had declared independence in June 1898; the Philippine–American War (1899–1902) followed, with heavy Filipino civilian losses. US rule then brought schools, English and an elected assembly (1907), but under American control.
• Cuba to 1906: the Teller Amendment had promised not to annex Cuba, but the Platt Amendment (1901) gave the USA the right to intervene and a naval base at Guantánamo Bay; US troops occupied Cuba until 1902 and returned in 1906.

Frequently asked questions

What were the main motives for imperialism? Economic gain, military and naval strategy, rivalry and prestige between nations, religious missions, and a belief in a “civilising mission”.

What is the difference between direct and indirect rule? Direct rule, as in French Senegal, governed through European officials; indirect rule, as in British Northern Nigeria, governed through existing African rulers under British supervision.

What changed in India after 1857? The East India Company was abolished, the Crown took direct control through a Viceroy, the army was reorganised and Britain promised not to interfere in religion.

Why did the USA fight Spain in 1898? Sympathy for Cuban independence fanned by the press, the sinking of the Maine, economic interests in Cuba and a wish for overseas bases.

Related resources

• Overseas empires revision notes
• Overseas empires practice questions

Official syllabus

Cambridge IGCSE History 0470 syllabus for 2024, 2025 and 2026, Core Content Option A key question 5 — cambridgeinternational.org. Cambridge O Level History 2147 sets the same key question — cambridgeinternational.org.