Edexcel IGCSE History: South Africa, From Union to the End of Apartheid, 1948–94 — Revision Notes

Quick-recall notes for Depth Study 8 of Pearson Edexcel International GCSE History 4HI1 Paper 1, “South Africa: from union to the end of apartheid, 1948–94”. Full explanations are in the South Africa study guide; practise with the South Africa practice questions.

Syllabus coverage (4HI1, Depth Study 8)

Key topic	Core content
1. Setting up apartheid, 1948–54	1948 election, apartheid laws, passes, reserves, early opposition
2. Growth of apartheid, 1955–59	Petty apartheid, education, Verwoerd, Vorster, Bantu Self-Government Act
3. Resisting apartheid, 1955–78	Mandela, ANC, Biko, Sharpeville, MK, Soweto, Treason Trials, world reaction
4. P.W. Botha, 1978–90	UDF, township unrest, churches, reforms, AWB, State of Emergency, sanctions
5. Dismantling apartheid, 1990–94	De Klerk, repeal (1991), Mandela, 1994 election

The apartheid laws

Law	Year	Effect
Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act	1949	Banned marriage across colour lines
Population Registration Act	1950	Classified everyone by race
Group Areas Act	1950	Separate residential areas; forced removals
Suppression of Communism Act	1950	Used to ban opponents of apartheid
Natives (Abolition of Passes…) Act	1952	Single reference book for black men
Separate Amenities Act	1953	Separate — and unequal — public facilities
Bantu Education Act	1953	State-controlled, inferior black schooling
Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act	1959	Homelands (Bantustans)

Timeline

Date	Event
May 1948	National Party wins the election under Malan
1952	Defiance Campaign
June 1955	Freedom Charter adopted
1956–61	Treason Trial (all acquitted)
Aug 1956	Women’s march on Pretoria
1958	Verwoerd becomes Prime Minister
1959	Bantu Self-Government Act; PAC founded
21 Mar 1960	Sharpeville: 69 killed
Apr 1960	ANC and PAC banned
Dec 1961	Umkhonto we Sizwe launches sabotage campaign
1964	Mandela sentenced to life (Rivonia Trial)
1966	Verwoerd assassinated; Vorster PM
June 1976	Soweto uprising
Sept 1977	Biko dies in police custody
1977	Mandatory UN arms embargo
1978	P.W. Botha becomes Prime Minister
1983	New constitution; UDF founded
1984	Tricameral Parliament; township unrest; Tutu’s Nobel Prize
1985	State of Emergency; “Rubicon” speech; mixed-marriage ban repealed
1986	Pass laws abolished; nationwide emergency; US sanctions
1989	De Klerk replaces Botha
2 Feb 1990	ANC unbanned; Mandela freed on 11 Feb
1991	Group Areas, Land and Population Registration Acts repealed
1992	Whites-only referendum backs reform
Apr 1993	Chris Hani assassinated
Apr 1994	First multiracial election; Mandela President (May)

Forms of resistance compared

Movement	Leaders	Methods	Outcome
ANC (1950s)	Mandela, Sisulu, Tambo, Luthuli	Defiance Campaign, Freedom Charter	Treason Trial; banned 1960
PAC	Sobukwe	Anti-pass protest	Sharpeville; banned 1960
Umkhonto we Sizwe	Mandela	Sabotage	Rivonia; leaders imprisoned
Black Consciousness	Biko	Pride, self-reliance; student activism	Soweto 1976; Biko’s death
UDF	Many leaders; churches	Mass protest, boycotts	State of Emergency; pressure for change

Key terms

Term	Meaning
Apartheid	“Separateness”: legally enforced racial segregation
Petty apartheid	Segregation of everyday facilities
Grand apartheid	Separate homelands for black ethnic groups
Bantustan	Homeland created for a black ethnic group
Pass laws	Laws controlling where black people could live and work
Total strategy	Botha’s combined reform and repression policy
Tricameral Parliament	Three houses (white, Coloured, Indian), 1984
Sanctions	Economic penalties imposed by other states

Worked example: two effects

Explain two effects of the Sharpeville Massacre (1960).

1. The banning of the ANC and PAC: the government declared a state of emergency and outlawed both organisations, forcing them underground and into exile.
2. A turn to armed struggle and world condemnation: ANC leaders formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (1961), and Sharpeville turned international opinion against South Africa, which left the Commonwealth in 1961.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Saying segregation began in 1948. It existed before; apartheid systematised it.
• Treating Botha as a pure hardliner. He reformed some laws, but kept white political power and used force.
• Overlooking internal resistance. Sanctions mattered, but township unrest and the UDF made the country ungovernable.
• Mixing up Sharpeville (1960) and Soweto (1976). Different causes: passes v Afrikaans teaching.
• Forgetting the violence of 1990–94. Negotiations were not smooth; mention Hani and Inkatha.

Frequently asked questions

Why did Botha introduce reforms? Economic pressure, the need for skilled black labour, international isolation and the hope of winning Coloured and Indian support.

Why did de Klerk free Mandela? Sanctions, economic decline, the failure of repression and the end of the Cold War made negotiation the only realistic option.

What did the 1994 election achieve? It gave all adults the vote and brought the ANC to power with Mandela as President.

Source

Pearson Edexcel International GCSE History (4HI1) specification, Issue 5, February 2026, Paper 1, Depth Study 8.