Edexcel IGCSE History: Unification of Italy, 1848–70 (4HI1)

“Development of a nation: unification of Italy, 1848–70” is Depth Study 2 on Paper 1 of Pearson Edexcel International GCSE History (4HI1). It explains how a peninsula of separate states, many dominated by Austria, became the Kingdom of Italy (proclaimed in 1861) and then gained Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870). Exam questions ask you to explain effects, interpret an extract and judge the relative importance of people such as Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II and Napoleon III.

Related: Revision notes | Practice questions | Paper 1 Depth Studies overview

Syllabus coverage

The 4HI1 specification (Issue 5, February 2026) sets five key topics:

1. The 1848 Revolutions in the Italian states — causes, constitutions in Tuscany and Piedmont, Mazzini’s democratic revolt against the Pope in Rome, reasons for failure, and the legacy: Victor Emmanuel and the Statuto, Austrian dominance, the papacy and the French occupation of Rome.
2. Developments in Piedmont, 1849–54 — Victor Emmanuel II, the appointment of Cavour (1852), his financial and domestic reforms, economic expansion and his policies to reduce the Church’s influence.
3. The defeat of Austria, 1854–59 — the Crimean War, the Orsini Affair, the Pact of Plombières, Magenta and Solferino, Villafranca, Cavour’s resignation, the annexation of the central states and the loss of Nice and Savoy.
4. Garibaldi and the Papal States — Garibaldi’s motives, his relationship with Cavour and Victor Emmanuel, his conquest of Sicily and Naples, the great powers’ reaction and the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy.
5. Venice and Rome and the extent of unification by 1870 — “Piedmontisation”, the Austro-Prussian War and Venetia, the problem of Rome, Garibaldi’s failures (1862–67), the Franco-Prussian War and the acquisition of Rome, and factors for and against unity.

Why did the 1848 revolutions in Italy happen and fail?

In 1848 Italy was divided into states including the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, Lombardy and Venetia (ruled directly by Austria), the duchies of Tuscany, Parma and Modena, the Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily). Causes of revolution included economic hardship, liberal demands for constitutions, nationalist hostility to Austria and the example of revolution in France in February 1848.

Rulers in Naples, Tuscany and Piedmont granted constitutions; Charles Albert of Piedmont issued the Statuto in March 1848. Milan rose against the Austrians in the Five Days (March 1848) and Venice declared a republic under Daniele Manin. Charles Albert declared war on Austria but was defeated at Custoza (July 1848) and, after renewing the war, at Novara (March 1849). He abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.

In Rome, Pope Pius IX refused to support a war against Catholic Austria (April 1848) and fled the city after his minister Rossi was assassinated. A Roman Republic was proclaimed in February 1849, with Mazzini as one of its leaders and Garibaldi commanding its defence. French troops sent by Louis Napoleon captured Rome in mid-1849 and restored the Pope; a French garrison stayed.

Why did 1848 fail? Austria’s army under Radetzky was far stronger; the revolutionaries were divided between monarchists, moderates and republicans; the Pope withdrew; most peasants took no part; and no foreign power helped. Legacy: Piedmont alone kept its constitution, Victor Emmanuel gained a reputation as the “honest king”, Austria’s dominance was re-established and the papacy became firmly hostile to nationalism.

What did Cavour change in Piedmont?

Count Camillo di Cavour became Prime Minister in November 1852, after an alliance with the centre-left under Rattazzi (the connubio). He modernised Piedmont’s finances, signed free-trade treaties, encouraged banks and built railways, so that Piedmont became the most economically advanced Italian state. He continued the anti-clerical policy begun with the Siccardi Laws (1850), which removed Church courts, and in 1855 a law closed many religious houses. These measures made Piedmont a model liberal state that attracted exiles and nationalists from the rest of Italy.

How was Austria defeated in 1859?

Piedmont joined Britain and France in the Crimean War (1855), which gave Cavour a seat at the Congress of Paris (1856) to raise the Italian question. The Orsini Affair (January 1858), an Italian nationalist’s bomb attack on Napoleon III, persuaded the emperor to act on Italy. At Plombières (July 1858) Napoleon III and Cavour secretly agreed that France would help Piedmont in a war against Austria provided Austria could be made to appear the aggressor; Piedmont would gain northern Italy and France would receive Nice and Savoy.

Austria declared war in April 1859. French and Piedmontese forces won at Magenta and Solferino (June 1859), but Napoleon III, alarmed by casualties and the threat of Prussian intervention, made the armistice of Villafranca (July 1859) without consulting Cavour. Piedmont gained Lombardy but not Venetia, and Cavour resigned in protest. He returned in January 1860; the central states (Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the Romagna) voted in plebiscites to join Piedmont, and in return Piedmont ceded Nice and Savoy to France.

What was Garibaldi’s role in 1860?

Giuseppe Garibaldi, a republican and a native of Nice, was angered by its loss. In May 1860 he led the Expedition of the Thousand to Sicily, where a revolt had begun. He won at Calatafimi, took Palermo, crossed to the mainland and entered Naples in September 1860. Cavour feared he would attack Rome and provoke France, so the Piedmontese army marched through the Papal States (defeating papal forces at Castelfidardo) to reach the south. At Teano (October 1860) Garibaldi handed his conquests to Victor Emmanuel. Plebiscites confirmed union, and the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in March 1861. Cavour died in June 1861.

How were Venice and Rome added by 1870?

The new state faced deep problems. “Piedmontisation” imposed Piedmont’s laws, taxes and conscription on the rest of Italy, and the south saw years of armed resistance known as brigandage. Garibaldi’s attempts to seize Rome failed at Aspromonte (1862), where he was wounded by Italian troops, and at Mentana (1867), where French and papal forces defeated him.

Venetia came through alliance with Prussia: although Italy was defeated at the second battle of Custoza in 1866, Prussia’s victory over Austria meant Venetia was handed (via France) to Italy and confirmed by plebiscite. Rome came when the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 forced France to withdraw its garrison; Italian troops entered Rome in September 1870, and it became the capital. The Pope refused to accept the loss.

How united was Italy in 1870?

Factors promoting unity included a single monarchy and constitution, a national army and parliament, and growing railways. Factors working against it included the North–South divide, regional loyalties, low literacy, the fact that most Italians spoke regional dialects, and the Pope’s hostility, which discouraged Catholics from taking part in national politics. The phrase “We have made Italy; now we must make Italians”, often attributed to Massimo d’Azeglio, sums up the problem.

Frequently asked questions

Who was most important to unification? That is the classic 16-mark debate. Cavour’s diplomacy won French help; Garibaldi delivered the south; Napoleon III’s armies defeated Austria; Prussia’s wars delivered Venetia and Rome. A strong answer weighs them rather than listing them.

Did Cavour want a united Italy? Historians debate this. His actions up to 1859 aimed mainly at expanding Piedmont in the north; he moved to take the south only once Garibaldi had conquered it.

Is Mazzini on the syllabus? Yes, through the 1848 revolutions and the Roman Republic.

Official syllabus

Pearson Edexcel International GCSE History (4HI1) specification, Issue 5, February 2026, Paper 1, Depth Study 2 — qualifications.pearson.com.