Nationhood, 1947–99 (2059): Revision Notes

These notes condense Section 3 of Cambridge O Level Pakistan Studies 2059 Paper 1, Nationhood 1947–99, into a timeline of leaders and a set of quick-reference lists. Use them to fix which leader introduced which policy, the order of constitutions and wars, and the main features of Pakistan’s foreign relations, so that your 7- and 14-mark answers rest on accurate detail.

Syllabus coverage

2059 Paper 1, Section 3 (2026 syllabus): Key Question 11 (1947–48), Key Question 12 (stability 1948–71 and constitutions), Key Question 13 (Bangladesh), Key Question 14 (Bhutto and Zia), Key Question 15 (1988–99) and Key Question 16 (world affairs and nuclear status).

Leaders timeline

Years	Leader	Remember for
1947–48	Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Governor-General)	Founding the state; refugee relief; State Bank; died 11 Sept 1948
1947–51	Liaquat Ali Khan (Prime Minister)	Objectives Resolution 1949; Liaquat–Nehru Pact 1950; assassinated 1951
1948–51, 1951–53	Khwaja Nazimuddin (Governor-General, then PM)	Dismissed as PM by Ghulam Muhammad in 1953
1951–55	Ghulam Muhammad (Governor-General)	Dissolved the Constituent Assembly, 1954
1955–58	Iskander Mirza (Governor-General, then President)	1956 Constitution; martial law October 1958
1958–69	Ayub Khan	Decade of Progress; 1962 Constitution; 1965 war
1969–71	Yahya Khan	Ended One Unit; 1970 election; 1971 war
1971–77	Zulfikar Ali Bhutto	Simla Agreement; 1973 Constitution; nationalisation
1977–88	Zia-ul-Haq	Islamisation; Afghan war; Eighth Amendment
1988–90	Benazir Bhutto	First term; dismissed 1990
1990–93	Nawaz Sharif	Privatisation; dismissed and restored, then resigned
1993–96	Benazir Bhutto	Second term; dismissed 1996
1997–99	Nawaz Sharif	Nuclear tests 1998; removed October 1999

Key Question 11: problems of 1947–48

1. Radcliffe Award (Gurdaspur) and Indian access to Kashmir.
2. Canal water dispute, later settled by the Indus Waters Treaty (1960, World Bank).
3. Division of assets: cash and military stores delayed.
4. Princely states: Junagadh (occupied by India, 1947), Hyderabad (annexed after Indian military action, 1948), Kashmir (war; UN ceasefire January 1949).
5. Refugee crisis and violence.
6. Administration: new capital, staff and offices at Karachi.
7. National language controversy.

Key Question 12: constitutions

Document	Features to remember
Objectives Resolution, 1949	Sovereignty belongs to Allah; democracy and Islamic social justice; minority rights
1956 Constitution	Islamic Republic; parliamentary; Muslim head of state; Urdu and Bengali national languages
1962 Constitution	Presidential; Basic Democracies as electoral college; “Islamic” restored in 1963
1973 Constitution	Parliamentary federal system; Islam the state religion; Muslim President and PM

Key Question 13: road to Bangladesh

• 1948–52: language dispute; deaths in Dhaka protests, February 1952.
• Economic and political disparity between the two wings.
• 1966: Sheikh Mujib’s Six Points.
• 1970: cyclone; Awami League wins the general election.
• March 1971: military action in East Pakistan.
• December 1971: Indian military intervention; surrender in Dhaka on 16 December.

Key Question 14: Bhutto and Zia

Bhutto: Simla Agreement 1972; 1973 Constitution; nationalisation of industry, banks and education; land and labour reforms; Federal Security Force; Lahore Islamic Summit 1974; nuclear programme; disputed 1977 election; removed July 1977.

Zia: Hudood Ordinances (1979); zakat and ushr; Federal Shariat Court; Shariat Benches; referendum (1984); non-party elections (1985); Eighth Amendment (1985); Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) and refugees; US aid; died August 1988.

Key Question 15: the 1990s

• Recurring problems: inflation, unemployment, corruption charges, Kashmir tension, dismissals under the Eighth Amendment.
• Benazir: clashes with Punjab under Sharif; no-confidence motion 1989; IMF pressure and devaluation in the second term.
• Sharif: privatisation; BCCI collapse; loss of US aid; Thirteenth Amendment 1997; nuclear tests 1998; Lahore Declaration and Kargil 1999.

Key Question 16: world affairs checklist

Country or body	Key points
India	Kashmir; wars 1947–48, 1965, 1971; Simla 1972; nuclear rivalry; Lahore Declaration 1999
Bangladesh	Recognised 1974; repatriation and asset issues
Afghanistan	Pakhtoonistan dispute; Soviet invasion 1979; refugees
Iran	RCD 1964 with Turkey; changes after 1979 revolution
China	Close partnership; Karakoram Highway
USSR/Russia	Cool in Cold War; Afghanistan; closer after 1991; Sharif in Moscow 1999
USA/UK	SEATO 1954, CENTO 1955; left SEATO 1972, CENTO 1979
Commonwealth	Left 1972; rejoined 1989
Nuclear	Programme 1972; Indian test 1974; Pakistani tests May 1998; outside the NPT

Worked example

Question: Why was Iskander Mirza’s government unpopular by 1958? [7]

Model answer outline: Frequent changes of prime minister made government look unstable [point 1]. One Unit was resented in Sindh, Balochistan and the Frontier [point 2]. Economic problems, including food shortages and rising prices, hurt ordinary people [point 3]. Mirza was seen to manipulate politicians to keep power, and elections were repeatedly postponed [point 4]. Each point should be explained with evidence.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Muddling Governor-General and Prime Minister. Nazimuddin held both posts at different times.
• Mixing the constitutions. Learn which was parliamentary (1956, 1973) and which presidential (1962).
• Describing Hyderabad’s accession as peaceful. It followed Indian military action in September 1948.
• One-sided “how successful” answers. Always give both successes and failures.

How long should each Section B answer be?

The 2059 syllabus sets the length expected for each part: the 4-mark part needs a factual answer of no more than one short paragraph; the 7-mark part needs at least two paragraphs explaining reasons; and the 14-mark part is an essay of about two pages in continuous prose, weighing factors and reaching a judgement. Use the timeline above to supply the dates that lift a 7- or 14-mark answer.

Frequently asked questions

What was One Unit? The 1955 merger of the provinces of West Pakistan into a single province, ended by Yahya Khan in 1970.

What did the Eighth Amendment do? Introduced under Zia in 1985, it gave the president power to dismiss the national assembly and the prime minister.

Related pages

• Nationhood, 1947–99 study guide
• Emergence of Pakistan revision notes
• Paper 1 overview revision notes

Source: Cambridge International, Cambridge O Level Pakistan Studies 2059 syllabus for examination in 2026, Version 1, Paper 1 Section 3.