O Level Sociology: Patterns of Crime and How Societies Deal With It — Revision Notes (Cambridge 2251)

These notes condense key questions 6.2 and 6.3 of Cambridge O Level Sociology (2251). Recorded crime is highest among young, working-class men and varies by ethnicity; explanations range from strain and subculture to labelling, power and patriarchy; and societies use punishments with different aims and policing strategies of varying effectiveness. Always ask whether patterns show offending or policing.

Fuller explanations: O Level patterns of crime and how societies deal with it guide.

Syllabus coverage

2251 syllabus 2025–2027: 6.2 (6.2.1 patterns; 6.2.2–6.2.5 explanations by age, ethnicity, gender, class; 6.2.6 theories; 6.2.7 evaluation) and 6.3 (6.3.1 aims; 6.3.2 punishments; 6.3.3 policing).

Key terms

Term	Definition
Recorded crime	Crime known to and recorded by the police
Victimisation	Being the victim of a crime
Anomie	Normlessness when goals and means are out of balance (Merton)
Innovation	Using illegitimate means to reach accepted goals (Merton)
Focal concerns	Lower-class values such as toughness and excitement (Miller, 1958)
Deviant career	Progression into deviance after a label sticks (Becker)
Folk devil	Group blamed during a moral panic
Crimes of the powerful	Corporate and state crime (Box, 1983)
Seductions of crime	Thrill and emotion as motives for crime (Katz, 1988)
Chivalry thesis	Lenient treatment of women by the justice system (Pollak, 1950)
Restraining order	Court order forbidding contact with a person
Probation	Supervision in the community instead of or after prison

6.2 Explanations summary

Group	Syllabus explanations	Named evidence
Age	Police targeting; self-fulfilling prophecy; stereotyping; gangs; weak control; lack of opportunity; status frustration	A. Cohen (1955)
Ethnicity	Institutional racism; discrimination; targeting; deprivation; stereotyping; gangs; status frustration	Lea and Young (1984); Gilroy (1982)
Gender	Chivalry thesis; masculinity; control; misogyny; stereotyping; gangs; opportunity	Pollak (1950); Miller (1958); Carlen (1988); Heidensohn (1985)
Class	Exclusion; deprivation; inadequate socialisation; opportunity; status frustration; power; targeting	Box (1983); Murray (New Right)

6.2.6 Theories — one line each

• Strain (Merton, 1938): goals–means gap → five adaptations; innovation = crime.
• Subculture (A. Cohen, 1955): status frustration → delinquent subculture.
• New Right (Murray): underclass, inadequate socialisation.
• Labelling (Becker, 1963): label → master status → self-fulfilling prophecy → deviant career.
• Moral panic (S. Cohen, 1972): media → folk devils → more control → amplification.
• Marxism: law protects capitalism; crimes of the powerful under-punished (Box, 1983).
• Feminism: patriarchal control (Heidensohn); class and gender deals (Carlen).
• Postmodernism: thrill, identity and consumerism (Katz, 1988); diverse, individual crime.

6.3 Punishment and policing

Aims: protection; deterrence; retribution; incapacitation; rehabilitation.

Punishment	Main aim	Key evaluation
Prison	Incapacitation	High reoffending
Rehabilitation	Rehabilitation	Halden, Norway (2010) cited for humane approach
Community sentence	Reparation	Cheaper, less deterrent
Fines	Deterrence	Unequal impact
Capital punishment	Retribution	Irreversible
Corporal punishment	Deterrence	Human rights concerns; e.g. caning in Singapore
Tagging, curfews, restraining orders	Control	Rely on monitoring
Probation, cautions	Rehabilitation	Keep offenders in work
Exile, ostracism, social media shaming	Protection, shame	No due process

Policing: stop and search; surveillance and digital surveillance; crime prevention; community vs military-style policing.

Worked example: a 6-mark “explain” answer

Explain three reasons why the chivalry thesis may not explain gender differences in crime. (practice)

1. Women may receive harsher treatment when they break gender norms — for example being judged as bad mothers as well as offenders (2).
2. The gender gap also appears in self-report studies, which do not depend on police or courts (2).
3. Other explanations, such as greater social control of women (Heidensohn) or the culture of masculinity, explain the gap without assuming leniency (2).

Worked example: a 14-mark evaluation plan

Evaluate the view that crime is mainly committed by young people. (practice)

1. For: recorded offending peaks in the teenage years and early twenties; young people have weaker ties to work and family; status frustration (A. Cohen) and focal concerns such as excitement (Miller) apply mainly to youth; gang culture offers status.
2. Against: statistics reflect police targeting and stop and search of young people in public spaces; labelling and moral panics exaggerate youth crime (S. Cohen); white-collar and corporate crimes are committed mostly by older adults and are under-recorded (Box); domestic crime is committed across all ages.
3. Conclusion: young people are over-represented in recorded street and property crime, but the claim ignores hidden crimes of older and more powerful groups.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Confusing Albert Cohen (status frustration) and Stanley Cohen (moral panics).
• Presenting statistics as fact without questioning recording and policing.
• Describing punishments without saying whether they achieve their aims.
• Using only functionalist theories for class explanations — include Marxism and power.
• Forgetting victimisation patterns in 6.2.1.

Quick self-test

1. List Merton’s five adaptations.
2. What did Box argue about crimes of the powerful?
3. Explain one postmodern explanation of crime.
4. Name the five aims of punishment.
5. Give one strength and one weakness of digital surveillance.

Frequently asked questions

How do I evaluate a theory? Say what it explains well, what it fails to explain, and how a competing theory fills the gap.

Is rehabilitation more effective than prison? Evidence such as lower reoffending in rehabilitative systems suggests it can be, but results depend on resources and the offender.

Which explanations fit my own society? Apply the syllabus explanations to local patterns, and note where data on crime may be incomplete.

Related pages: O Level crime patterns and punishment practice questions | O Level family, education and crime revision notes