O Level Sociology: How Society Controls Us and What Shapes Identity — Revision Notes (Cambridge 2251)

These notes cover key questions 2.2 (How does society control us?) and 2.3 (What influences our social identity?) of Cambridge O Level Sociology (2251). Social control is the set of formal and informal pressures that make people conform, backed by positive and negative sanctions; some people resist through protest groups and subcultures. Social identity is shaped by age, gender, ethnicity and class, and increasingly by online life, globalisation and consumer choice.

Fuller explanation of identity: O Level how we learn our identity guide.

Syllabus coverage

2251 syllabus 2025–2027:

• 2.2 — formal and informal control and sanctions (2.2.1); consensus and conflict views: functionalism, Marxism, feminism (2.2.2); formal agencies — government, police, courts, penal system, armed forces (2.2.3) — and their methods: law-making, coercion, digital surveillance, arrest, sentencing, imprisonment (2.2.4); informal agencies — family, education, peer group, media, religion, workplace (2.2.5) — and their sanctions (2.2.6); resistance through protest groups and subcultures (2.2.7).
• 2.3 — age, gender, ethnicity, social class (2.3.1); the digital self (2.3.2); globalisation (2.3.3); postmodernist views of chosen identity (2.3.4).

Key terms

Term	Definition
Conformity	Following society’s norms and laws
Sanction	A reward (positive) or punishment (negative)
Formal control	Official control through laws and agencies of the state
Informal control	Everyday control through approval and disapproval of others
Legitimacy	Acceptance that authority is rightful
Coercion	Force or threat of force
Surveillance	Watching and monitoring behaviour, increasingly digitally
Ostracism	Shutting someone out of a group
Protest group	Group campaigning on an issue, e.g. environmental or rights groups
Subculture	Group with distinctive norms and values within wider society
Online subculture	Subculture formed in digital spaces, e.g. gaming or fan communities
Multiculturalism	Different cultures living together with equal respect
Global culture	Shared media, brands and styles across the world

2.2 Social control at a glance

Formal agencies — government (passes laws), police (arrest, patrol, digital surveillance such as CCTV and number-plate cameras), courts (sentencing), penal system (imprisonment, probation), armed forces (coercion in emergencies or civil unrest).

Effectiveness: strongest when people see agencies as legitimate; weakened by corruption, low trust, unreported crime and limited resources.

Informal agencies and sanctions

Agency	Positive sanction	Negative sanction
Family	Parental rewards, praise	Grounding, withdrawal of pocket money
Education	Merits, prizes	Detention, suspension
Peer group	Acceptance, popularity	Teasing, ostracism
Media	Social media “likes”, positive coverage	Online shaming, negative comments
Religion	Promise of reward, respect in community	Religious sanctions, community disapproval
Workplace	Promotion, bonus	Warning, dismissal from a job

Theories

	Functionalism (consensus)	Marxism (conflict)	Feminism (conflict)
Purpose of control	Protects shared values and order	Protects ruling-class power and property	Protects male power
Example	Courts reinforce moral boundaries	Laws against theft protect property owners	Women controlled through reputation and family “honour”

Resistance — reasons for joining protest groups and subcultures: shared grievance, belonging, identity, excitement, rejection of mainstream values, influence of friends. Examples: student and environmental protest groups; youth subcultures; online communities; religious subcultures.

2.3 Influences on identity — quick list

• Age: social meaning of childhood, youth, old age differs between societies.
• Gender: learned roles; changing with education and employment of women.
• Ethnicity: language, religion, customs; minority and migrant communities.
• Class: income, education and occupation shape lifestyle and opportunity.
• Digital self: chosen online identities; risks of cyberbullying and pressure.
• Globalisation: homogenisation, hybridity, cultural defence.
• Postmodernism: “pick and mix” identities through consumption; criticised for overstating choice.

Worked example: a 6-mark answer

Explain three ways the media acts as an agency of informal social control. (practice)

1. Online approval — social media “likes” reward behaviour that matches group norms, encouraging people to post what is acceptable (2).
2. Public shaming — people who break norms may be criticised in comments or news stories, which deters others (2).
3. Representations — films and advertising show “normal” behaviour and roles, which audiences copy (2).

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Mixing up formal (official, written rules) and informal (unofficial, unwritten) control.
• Giving examples of sanctions without saying whether they are positive or negative.
• Forgetting digital surveillance, which the syllabus names.
• Writing about subcultures without explaining why people join them.
• Treating identity as fixed — the syllabus asks how globalisation and choice change it.

Quick self-test

1. Name two methods used by formal agencies.
2. Give one positive and one negative sanction used in the workplace.
3. Explain the feminist view of social control.
4. Give two examples of subcultures.
5. Explain what is meant by cultural defence.

Frequently asked questions

Which is more effective, formal or informal control? Informal control governs most everyday behaviour; formal control is needed when informal control fails or for serious crime.

Is joining a protest group deviant? It can be non-conformist, but many protest groups act legally; deviance depends on the norms being challenged.

How does 2.3 link to 2.2? Identity is shaped by the same agencies that control us; for example gender identity is reinforced by sanctions from family and peers.

Related pages: O Level social control and identity practice questions | O Level methods revision notes