A Level English Language: Language and Analysis — Revision Notes

Condensed for the final weeks. For the full explanation, use the Language and Analysis study guide.

Work through the frameworks

Framework	Examine
Phonology	Alliteration, sibilance, assonance, rhythm
Lexis	Formality, semantic fields, jargon, connotation, monosyllabic vs polysyllabic
Semantics	Metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, euphemism, irony
Grammar	Sentence type and length, voice, modality, tense, pronouns
Pragmatics	Implied meaning, presupposition, politeness, face
Discourse	Structure, cohesion, openings and endings
Graphology	Layout, typeface, colour, images

The mark is for the effect, not the label. Compare:

• Weak: “The writer uses a rhetorical question.”
• Strong: “The rhetorical question ‘Who wouldn’t want this?’ presupposes agreement, making disagreement feel like an eccentric position rather than a reasonable one.”

Quote → what it suggests → why the writer chose it. That sequence is the whole skill.

Grammar features that repay attention

• Modality — high modality (must, will) asserts authority and certainty; low modality (might, could) hedges and reduces the risk of being contradicted.
• Voice — the passive conceals the agent. “Errors were made” omits who made them. It is the standard institutional evasion and always worth a comment.
• Pronouns — inclusive we builds solidarity or spreads responsibility; direct you creates synthetic personalisation, addressing a mass audience as though individually.
• Sentence variation — a short sentence following long ones is emphatic. Comment on the contrast, not the length.
• Presupposition — what a sentence takes for granted. “When did you stop worrying about this?” smuggles in an assumption that resists challenge.

Register and context

Register is analysed through field (subject), tenor (relationship between participants), and mode (spoken, written, or between).

A register mismatch is nearly always deliberate. Informality in a formal context builds intimacy or humour; formality in a casual one creates distance, authority or irony. If a text’s register feels wrong, that observation is the analysis.

Spoken language

Features: fillers, false starts, repetition, repairs, overlaps, interruptions, adjacency pairs, turn-taking, discourse markers (so, right, anyway), deixis (this, here, now), back-channelling (mm, yeah).

These are normal features of speech, not errors. Marking them as mistakes is the standard misreading. Analyse what they achieve — buying planning time, holding the floor, signalling a topic change, or managing the relationship between speakers.

Power in conversation is visible in who interrupts, who controls topic, who asks and who answers questions, and who holds the floor longest. Unequal turn length is evidence, not a coincidence.

Representation and language attitudes

Representation is how language constructs a version of people, groups or events — interrogate naming choices, modifiers, and whether agency is expressed or obscured (a passive construction can delete the actor entirely).

Attitudes to variation are examinable in themselves: prescriptivism treats change and non-standard forms as decline; descriptivism records variation without judgement. Standard English carries overt prestige; non-standard varieties can carry covert prestige within the group that uses them.

Worked example. Analyse: “Mistakes were made, and lessons have been learned.”

passive voice x2   "were made", "have been learned" - no agent named in
                    either clause; nobody is identified as responsible
nominalisation      "mistakes", "lessons" turn actions into abstract
                    things, distancing them further from any actor
present perfect      "have been learned" implies completion, closing
                    the matter without offering evidence
parallel structure   balanced clauses give a formal, rehearsed quality,
                    marking it as institutional rather than personal

Effect: accountability is acknowledged in form while being grammatically avoided in substance — characteristic of institutional apology, and a strong contrast to comment on if a text elsewhere uses direct, agentive language.

Directed writing and commentary

The task is transformation, not summary.

Fix form, audience, purpose before writing. Then:

• Adjust register for the new audience.
• Select relevant material; you need not use all of it.
• Rephrase — lifting from the source caps the mark.
• Follow the target form’s conventions.

The commentary must justify, not describe. Each choice should be named with its framework, tied to audience and purpose, and explained: “I used low modality throughout because the audience is being persuaded rather than instructed, and hedging avoids the resistance that direct commands provoke.”

Structuring the analysis

1. Overview — genre, audience, purpose, in one or two sentences.
2. Body — organised by effect or by framework. Short embedded quotations, precise analysis, always linked to purpose.
3. Conclusion — the overall effect and how the language achieves it.

Keep quotations short. A two-word quotation embedded in your own sentence demonstrates more control than a full copied line.

Exam traps

• Feature-spotting without analysing effect.
• Treating spoken-language features as errors.
• Long quotations used as padding.
• Ignoring audience and purpose.
• Retelling content instead of analysing language.
• Lifting from the source in directed writing.
• A commentary that describes rather than justifies.

Self-test

1. What three-part sequence earns analysis marks?
2. What is the effect of the passive voice, and why does it recur in institutional language?
3. Name the three components of register.
4. Why are fillers and false starts not errors?
5. What must a commentary do beyond naming your choices?

Answers: 1. Quote the language, explain what it suggests, then explain why the writer chose it. 2. It conceals or omits the agent, so responsibility is obscured — which is why it recurs in institutional and political writing. 3. Field, tenor and mode. 4. They are normal features of unplanned spontaneous speech, serving functions such as buying planning time and holding the floor. 5. Justify each choice by explaining why it suits the target form, audience and purpose, using the language frameworks.