Cambridge A-Level Sociology: Globalisation Debates, Identity and Politics (9699)

Globalisation is the growing interconnectedness of the world’s societies through trade, media, migration, technology and politics. In Cambridge International A Level Sociology (9699), syllabus heading 7 Key debates, concepts and perspectives is the first half of Paper 4’s Globalisation section. It asks you to define globalisation and its problems (7.1), explain its effect on identity (7.2) and assess what it means for democracy, social movements and the nation state (7.3). Every Paper 4 question is a 35-mark essay, so you need contrasting perspectives, not just definitions.

This guide sits under the Paper 4 overview guide; the second half of the Globalisation section is covered in the globalisation contemporary issues guide.

Syllabus coverage

Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699 (2024–2026), Paper 4 Section A, heading 7:

• 7.1 Perspectives on globalisation — key definitions and issues, including globalisation, glocalisation, global culture and problems with defining globalisation; cultural, political and economic dimensions; perspectives on who benefits: Marxist, feminist, postmodernist, globalist, sceptic and transformationalist.
• 7.2 Globalisation and identity — ethnic revitalisation, cultural defence and hybrid identity; cultural divergence versus cultural convergence/homogenisation; the role of Western ideology in shaping identity and the concept of Westernisation.
• 7.3 Globalisation, power and politics — the spread of liberal democracy and human rights; global social movements and attempts to oppose globalisation; debates about the role of the nation state in tackling global social and environmental problems.

What is globalisation, and why is it hard to define?

Anthony Giddens (Runaway World, 1999) describes globalisation as the intensification of worldwide social relations, so that local events are shaped by distant ones. David Harvey (The Condition of Postmodernity, 1989) called this time-space compression. Marshall McLuhan had earlier coined the phrase global village (1962).

Three problems with defining it:

1. Is it new? Trade empires and colonialism linked continents centuries ago; sceptics argue today’s interconnection is a difference of degree.
2. Is it one process or several? Economic, political and cultural globalisation move at different speeds.
3. Is it global at all? Many people, especially the rural poor, have little access to global networks, so “globalisation” may describe the experience of richer groups.

Glocalisation — Roland Robertson’s term (1992) — describes global products and ideas being adapted to local cultures. Global culture refers to shared consumer goods, media and values that circulate worldwide.

What are the cultural, political and economic dimensions?

Dimension	What it involves	Example
Economic	Transnational corporations (TNCs), global finance, supply chains, free-trade agreements	Clothing designed in one country, made in another, sold worldwide
Political	International organisations and agreements; pooled sovereignty	United Nations, World Trade Organization, regional blocs
Cultural	Global media, brands, languages, migration of ideas and people	Streaming services, social media platforms, global sport

Who benefits from globalisation? The six perspectives

Perspective	Core claim	Key names
Globalist (hyperglobalist)	Globalisation is real and largely positive; national borders and states are becoming less important	Kenichi Ohmae, The Borderless World (1990)
Sceptic	Globalisation is exaggerated; most trade is regional and states remain powerful	Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question (1996)
Transformationalist	Globalisation is real but uneven, reshaping states rather than abolishing them	David Held and colleagues, Global Transformations (1999)
Marxist	Globalisation is the expansion of capitalism; the main beneficiaries are a transnational capitalist class	Leslie Sklair, Sociology of the Global System (1991); Immanuel Wallerstein’s world-systems theory
Feminist	Globalisation relies on and may deepen exploitation of women’s paid and unpaid labour	Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases (1989); global care chains (Arlie Hochschild)
Postmodernist	Globalisation produces fragmented, hybrid, consumer-based identities and the decline of grand narratives	Jean Baudrillard; Zygmunt Bauman

The globalist / sceptic / transformationalist typology comes from Held et al. (1999). Use it as the backbone of an essay on “who benefits”, then bring in Marxist and feminist critiques.

How does globalisation affect identity?

Section 7.2 sets two big possibilities against each other.

Cultural convergence / homogenisation. Global media and brands make cultures more alike. George Ritzer’s The McDonaldization of Society (1993) argues that efficiency, calculability, predictability and control spread from fast food to all areas of life. Westernisation is the claim that this convergence is really the spread of Western — especially American — consumerism, individualism and liberal values, sometimes described as cultural imperialism.

Cultural divergence. Contact between cultures can increase difference:

• Hybrid identity — new identities blending more than one culture; Homi Bhabha (The Location of Culture, 1994) and Stuart Hall’s work on diaspora identities.
• Cultural defence — groups protect their culture against outside threat, often through religion or nationalism; Steve Bruce uses this idea in Religion in the Modern World (1996).
• Ethnic revitalisation — renewed pride in, and revival of, ethnic languages, dress or traditions in response to globalisation.

Samuel Huntington (The Clash of Civilizations, 1996) argued that cultural identities, not ideology, would become the main source of global conflict; critics say this exaggerates the unity of “civilisations”. Benjamin Barber’s Jihad vs. McWorld (1995) presents homogenisation and backlash as two sides of the same process.

Is globalisation spreading democracy and human rights?

Francis Fukuyama’s essay “The End of History?” (1989, book 1992) argued that liberal democracy had defeated its rivals after the Cold War. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), international courts and global media scrutiny are cited as evidence of spreading rights norms.

Critics point out that democratic gains have been uneven and in some places reversed; that “democracy promotion” can serve Western interests; and that TNCs and global markets can override the choices of elected governments.

Can global social movements oppose globalisation?

Global social movements use the same networks they criticise. Examples include the protests at the World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle (1999), the World Social Forum (first held in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2001), the Occupy movement (2011) and climate movements such as Fridays for Future (from 2018). Many describe themselves as “alter-globalisation” — seeking a different globalisation rather than none. Manuel Castells (The Rise of the Network Society, 1996) argues networked communication gives such movements new power. Evaluation: movements often struggle to turn protest into lasting policy change.

Can nation states still tackle global problems?

• Globalist view: states are losing power to markets and TNCs; Ohmae’s The End of the Nation State (1995).
• Sceptic view: states still control borders, taxes, armies and law, as shown by trade wars and border closures.
• Transformationalist view: states increasingly act through cooperation — for example the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015) on climate change.
• Ulrich Beck (Risk Society, 1986; English 1992) argues that manufactured risks such as climate change cross borders, so national solutions alone cannot work.

How do you plan a 35-mark Paper 4 essay on this?

1. Define the key term in the question and show awareness of debate about it.
2. Set out the view in the question with evidence (for example, globalist arguments).
3. Evaluate it with contrasting perspectives (sceptic, Marxist, feminist).
4. Apply examples from more than one society.
5. Conclude with a judgement — transformationalism often provides a balanced position.

Frequently asked questions

What is the difference between globalists and transformationalists? Both accept that globalisation is real; globalists see it sweeping away the nation state, while transformationalists see states adapting and cooperating within it.

Is glocalisation the same as hybridity? They are related. Glocalisation usually describes global products adapted locally; hybridity describes identities that blend cultures.

Do I need to cover all six perspectives? For a “who benefits” essay, aim to use at least three contrasting perspectives in depth rather than listing all six.

Sources

• Cambridge International, Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699 syllabus for 2024, 2025 and 2026, Paper 4 Globalisation, heading 7, and Details of the assessment.
• Works are named with publication years in the text.

Related pages: globalisation debates revision notes | globalisation debates practice questions | Paper 4 revision notes