Cambridge A-Level Sociology: Secularisation, Feminism and Post-modern Religion — Revision Notes (9699)

These notes condense heading 12 The influence of religion from Cambridge International A Level Sociology (9699) Paper 4. Three debates: is religion declining (12.1)? Is religion patriarchal, and is that changing (12.2)? Is religion being transformed rather than lost in post-modern societies (12.3)? Each essay needs a clear judgement backed by evidence from more than one society.

Full explanations: secularisation, feminism and post-modern religion study guide.

Syllabus coverage

9699 (2024–2026) Paper 4 Section C, heading 12: 12.1 The secularisation debate; 12.2 Gender, feminism and religion; 12.3 Religion and post-modernity.

Key terms

Term	Definition
Secularisation	Religion losing social significance (Wilson, 1966)
Disenchantment	Decline of magical and supernatural explanations (Weber)
Religious pluralism	Many faiths coexisting; removes the “sacred canopy” (Berger, 1967)
Believing without belonging	Belief persisting without attendance (Davie, 1994)
Religious market theory	Constant demand; competition revitalises religion (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985)
Existential security	Feeling of safety that reduces need for religion (Norris and Inglehart, 2004)
Deprivatisation	Religion re-entering public life (Casanova, 1994)
Privatised religion	Personal, home-based belief
Spiritual shopping	Picking and mixing beliefs as a consumer (Lyon, 2000)
Resacralisation	Revival of the sacred
NRM	New religious movement; world-rejecting, -accommodating or -affirming (Wallis, 1984)
Fundamentalism	Return to the literal basics of a faith, often in reaction to modernity

12.1 Secularisation

For decline: falling attendance, membership and religious ceremonies in Western Europe; fewer believers among the young; generational decline (Bruce, God is Dead, 2002); disengagement of religion from state, education and welfare; rationalisation and disenchantment (Weber); pluralism removes the sacred canopy (Berger, 1967).

Against decline: believing without belonging (Davie, 1994); religious market theory (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985) — the USA stays religious; existential security (Norris and Inglehart, 2004) — global religiosity rising; deprivatisation (Casanova, 1994); Berger’s later desecularisation view (1999); growth of NRMs, New Age, Pentecostalism; a past “golden age” may be a myth.

12.2 Gender and religion

Issue	Evidence
Religion as patriarchal	de Beauvoir (1949); male leadership; male interpretation of texts
Patriarchal interpretation, not faith itself	El Saadawi (1980)
Historical change	Armstrong (1993) — earlier female deities
Moves to equality	Church of England women priests (1994), first woman bishop (2015); women rabbis in Reform Judaism
Benefits to women	Watson (1994) — veiling as choice; Woodhead — religious forms of feminism; community and support

12.3 Post-modernity

• Privatised religion — belief at home, personal spirituality.
• Spiritual shopping — Lyon (2000); Hervieu-Léger’s pilgrims and converts.
• Spiritual revolution? — Heelas and Woodhead (2005), Kendal Project: holistic spirituality growing, but not replacing congregational religion.
• Resacralisation — NRMs, New Age, charismatic growth, fundamentalism.
• NRMs — Wallis (1984) typology.
• Fundamentalism explanations: cultural defence (Bruce, 1996); cultural transition; disengagement; marginality (theodicy of disprivilege); religious revival. Giddens (1999): reaction to globalisation.

Worked essay plan

Practice question: “Religion is changing rather than declining.” Evaluate this view. [35]

1. Define secularisation and post-modern change.
2. Evidence of decline (Wilson, Bruce, attendance data).
3. Evidence of change: believing without belonging (Davie); spiritual shopping (Lyon); spiritual revolution (Heelas and Woodhead); NRMs (Wallis).
4. Global perspective: existential security (Norris and Inglehart); fundamentalism; religious market theory.
5. Evaluate the evidence: Kendal Project shows spirituality growing but too small to offset decline.
6. Judgement: in Western Europe decline and change coexist; globally, religion is changing far more than it is declining.

Model evaluation paragraph

On the claim that religion has declined: “Evidence of falling attendance in Western Europe supports Wilson’s secularisation thesis, but attendance is only one indicator of religiosity. Davie’s idea of believing without belonging suggests private belief may outlast public practice, while Norris and Inglehart show that religiosity remains high where existential security is low. The debate therefore turns on definition and location: if religion is defined substantively and measured by attendance in affluent societies, decline is clear; if it is defined functionally and measured globally, religion appears to be changing form rather than disappearing.”

This paragraph earns AO3 credit because it weighs evidence, names the measurement problem and reaches a conditional judgement rather than simply listing studies.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Treating secularisation as proved by attendance figures alone.
• Forgetting social significance — decline of belief is not the same as decline of influence.
• Feminism answers that only criticise religion; 12.2 asks for moves to equality and benefits too.
• Listing fundamentalism explanations without examples or evaluation.
• Using only Western evidence.

Quick self-test

1. Who defined secularisation in 1966?
2. What is “believing without belonging”?
3. Give two of Wallis’s three NRM types.
4. What did Heelas and Woodhead find in Kendal?
5. Explain “cultural transition” as a cause of fundamentalism.

Frequently asked questions

Is the USA evidence against secularisation? It is the main example used by religious market theorists, although critics note that American religion has also become more consumer-oriented.

Can I combine 12.1 and 12.3 in one essay? Yes — post-modern evidence is one of the strongest challenges to the secularisation thesis.

Which feminist position is strongest? None by default; judge using evidence of change in particular faiths and societies.

Related pages: influence of religion practice questions | religion and social order revision notes