Cambridge A-Level Sociology: Religion, Social Order and Social Change — Revision Notes (9699)

These notes condense heading 11 Religion and social order from Cambridge International A Level Sociology (9699) Paper 4. The debate in one line: religion either integrates society (functionalism), supports the powerful (Marxism) or can transform society (Weber, liberation theology, religious political movements). Defining and measuring religion shapes every answer, so start there.

Full explanations: religion and social order study guide.

Syllabus coverage

9699 (2024–2026) Paper 4 Section C, heading 11: 11.1 Religion and society; 11.2 Religion and social order; 11.3 Religion as a source of social change.

Key terms

Term	Definition
Substantive definition	Defines religion by its content, e.g. belief in the supernatural (Weber)
Functional definition	Defines religion by what it does for society or individuals (Durkheim)
Religiosity	Degree of religious belief, belonging and practice
Sacred / profane	Set apart and special / ordinary (Durkheim)
Collective conscience	Shared norms and values binding society
Civil religion	Sacred reverence for the nation (Bellah, 1967)
Ideology	Ideas that legitimate the interests of the powerful
Theodicy of disprivilege	Religious explanation of suffering that appeals to the poor (Weber)
Asceticism	Self-discipline and denial of pleasure
Calling	Duty to serve God through one’s worldly work
Liberation theology	Catholic movement committed to the poor and social justice
Relative autonomy	Religion can act partly independently of the economy (Maduro, 1982)

11.1 Defining, measuring and religiosity

• Definitions: substantive (Weber), functional (Durkheim), social constructionist (interactionist).
• Measurement problems: belief versus belonging versus practice; Glock and Stark’s dimensions (1968); question wording; social desirability; private belief unobservable.
• Religiosity by group:
  • Gender — women often more religious; socialisation, caring roles, life course.
  • Age — older people often more religious; ageing or generation effect.
  • Ethnicity — high among many minorities; cultural defence and cultural transition (Bruce, 1996).
  • Class — theodicy of disprivilege for the poor; world-affirming movements for the affluent.
• Other belief systems: science, political ideologies, humanism — rivals or functional equivalents?

11.2 Functionalism versus Marxism

	Functionalism	Marxism
Key names	Durkheim (1912), Malinowski, Parsons, Bellah (1967)	Marx (1844), Maduro (1982)
Role of religion	Social solidarity, shared values, coping with crisis	Ideology, legitimation of inequality, compensation
View of society	Consensus	Class conflict
Strength	Explains ritual, national ceremony, crisis response	Explains links between religion and power
Limitation	Ignores conflict and diversity; small-scale evidence	Ignores religion as a source of change; assumes false consciousness

11.3 Religion and social change

• Weber (1905): Calvinist predestination → anxiety → ascetic hard work and reinvestment → spirit of capitalism.
• Alternatives: Tawney (1926) — economic change came first; Marxist economic explanation; capitalism in non-Calvinist areas.
• Liberation theology: Gutiérrez (1971); Archbishop Romero assassinated (1980); religion against oppression.
• Evangelicals in US politics: Moral Majority (1979, Jerry Falwell); Bruce (2003) — limited policy success.
• Iranian revolution (1979): Ayatollah Khomeini; religion as revolutionary force.

Worked essay plan

Practice question: “Religion is a conservative force in society.” Evaluate this view. [35]

1. Define “conservative” (preserving existing values and power) and define religion.
2. Support: functionalism — social solidarity and shared values; Marxism — ideology and opium of the people.
3. Challenge: Weber’s Protestant ethic; liberation theology; Iranian revolution.
4. Nuance: Maduro’s relative autonomy; religion can be conservative in values but radical in action (e.g. a revolution establishing a traditional moral order).
5. Judgement: religion’s effect depends on its relationship to power in a given society.

Model evaluation paragraph

On Durkheim’s functionalism: “Durkheim’s study of totemism shows how shared ritual can bind a small, homogeneous society together, and national ceremonies in modern states suggest religion-like rituals still create solidarity. However, his evidence came from secondary accounts of a small-scale society, and in large, religiously diverse societies religion often divides rather than unites, as sectarian conflicts show. Marxists would add that any ‘solidarity’ produced may simply mask class inequality. Durkheim’s theory is most convincing for societies with one dominant faith and least convincing where several religions compete.”

This shows the examiner methodological criticism, a competing theory and a conditional judgement.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Using only Durkheim and Marx — 11.3 expects change arguments too.
• Treating “conservative” only as “right-wing”; sociologically it means resisting change.
• Describing Weber without the mechanism (predestination, anxiety, asceticism, reinvestment).
• Forgetting measurement difficulties and social groups in 11.1.
• Not using the syllabus’s named case studies (US Evangelicals, Iran).

Quick self-test

1. Give one problem with functional definitions of religion.
2. What did Malinowski observe among Trobriand Islanders?
3. Explain “opium of the people”.
4. Outline Tawney’s challenge to Weber.
5. Name one example of religion causing political change.

Frequently asked questions

How do I bring interactionism into religion essays? The syllabus asks you to contrast structural and interactionist theories; use social constructionist definitions and the meaning religion has for believers as the interactionist angle.

Is Weber a Marxist? No. Weber accepted that economic factors matter but argued ideas — including religious ideas — can drive economic change.

What is the best evidence that religion can be radical? Liberation theology and the Iranian revolution are the clearest cases.

Related pages: religion and social order practice questions | influence of religion revision notes