Cambridge A-Level Sociology: Religion, Social Order and Social Change (9699)

Does religion hold society together, keep people in their place, or drive social change? Syllabus heading 11 of Cambridge International A Level Sociology (9699), Religion and social order, is the first half of Paper 4’s Religion section. It covers how religion is defined and measured and how religiosity varies between groups (11.1), functionalist and Marxist accounts of religion and order (11.2), and religion as a source of change, from Weber’s Protestant ethic to liberation theology and religious politics (11.3). The syllabus asks you to contrast structural and interactionist theories throughout.

This guide sits under the Paper 4 overview guide. Secularisation, feminism and post-modernity (heading 12) are covered in the influence of religion guide.

Syllabus coverage

Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699 (2024–2026), Paper 4 Section C, heading 11:

• 11.1 Religion and society — ways of defining religion; difficulties in measuring religious belief; social groups and religiosity, including class, gender, ethnicity and age; religion and other belief systems.
• 11.2 Religion and social order — functionalist accounts of religion, social order and social solidarity; Marxist accounts of religion, oppression and capitalism; strengths and limitations of both.
• 11.3 Religion as a source of social change — Weber’s theory of religion and the rise of capitalism; alternative views on religion and the origins of capitalism; liberation theology; the influence of religious movements on political debates and struggles, through case studies such as the Evangelical movement in US politics or the Ayatollahs in the Iranian revolution.

How do sociologists define religion?

Type of definition	What it focuses on	Example	Problem
Substantive	What religion is — belief in the supernatural or sacred	Max Weber: belief in a superior or supernatural power	Excludes belief systems without a god, such as some forms of Buddhism
Functional	What religion does — integration, meaning, coping	Émile Durkheim: beliefs and practices relating to sacred things that unite a moral community	So broad that football or nationalism could count
Social constructionist	How people themselves define religion	Interactionist approach: religion is what members say it is	No single definition, so comparison is hard

Why is religious belief hard to measure?

• Operationalisation — belief, belonging and practice are different; Charles Glock and Rodney Stark (American Piety, 1968) distinguished several dimensions of religiosity (belief, practice, experience, knowledge, consequences).
• Attendance figures depend on who counts and how; people may attend for social reasons.
• Survey questions produce different answers depending on wording (“Do you belong to a religion?” versus “Do you believe in God?”).
• Social desirability — people may over-report in religious societies or under-report in secular ones.
• Private belief cannot be observed directly.

How does religiosity vary between social groups?

• Gender — in many societies women report higher belief and attendance than men; explanations include socialisation into caring roles, greater involvement in child-rearing and the life course.
• Age — older people tend to be more religious in many Western societies, which may reflect ageing (approaching death) or generation (socialised in more religious times).
• Ethnicity — minority ethnic and migrant groups often show high religiosity; religion can provide community support and cultural defence (Steve Bruce, 1996) or ease cultural transition in a new society.
• Class — Weber argued that disadvantaged groups may be drawn to religions offering a “theodicy of disprivilege”, explaining suffering and promising reward; middle-class groups may be drawn to world-affirming movements.

Religion and other belief systems: science, political ideologies (for example Marxism) and humanism also offer explanations of the world. Debate centres on whether these are rivals to religion, functional equivalents, or open versus closed belief systems.

How does religion maintain social order? Functionalist views

• Durkheim (The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 1912) studied Aboriginal Australian totemism and argued that the sacred symbolises society itself; collective worship creates collective conscience and social solidarity.
• Bronisław Malinowski described Trobriand Islanders using magic and ritual before dangerous ocean fishing but not in the safe lagoon — religion helps people cope with uncertainty and life crises.
• Talcott Parsons saw religion providing core values and meaning when life seems unfair.
• Robert Bellah (“Civil Religion in America”, 1967) argued that a civil religion — reverence for the nation, flag and constitution — integrates diverse societies.

Strengths: explains the persistence of ritual and religion’s role in crises and national ceremonies. Limitations: ignores conflict between and within religions; struggles with religious diversity; based on small-scale societies.

Does religion support oppression? Marxist views

• Karl Marx (1844) called religion “the opium of the people”: it eases the pain of exploitation but dulls awareness of its causes.
• Religion acts as ideology, legitimating inequality — for example the medieval “divine right” of kings or caste ideas presenting hierarchy as sacred.
• It offers compensation in an afterlife, discouraging change now.
• Neo-Marxists add nuance: Otto Maduro (1982) argued religion has relative autonomy and clergy can side with the oppressed.

Strengths: explains religion’s link to power and inequality. Limitations: ignores religion’s role in social change; assumes false consciousness; less relevant where religion has declined.

Can religion cause social change?

Weber’s Protestant ethic. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), Max Weber argued that Calvinist ideas — predestination, the calling and ascetic self-denial — produced a disciplined work ethic and reinvestment of profit that helped capitalism emerge in Northern Europe. Religion therefore caused economic change.

Alternative views on the origins of capitalism:

• R.H. Tawney (Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, 1926) argued economic change came first and Protestantism adapted to it.
• Marxists see capitalism arising from changes in the mode of production, with religion following.
• Critics note capitalism developed in some Catholic areas and not in some Calvinist ones.

Liberation theology. From the 1960s, Catholic clergy in Latin America combined Christianity with a commitment to the poor; Gustavo Gutiérrez’s A Theology of Liberation (1971) is a key text. Archbishop Óscar Romero of El Salvador, who spoke against military repression, was assassinated in 1980. Liberation theology shows religion opposing an unjust order — a challenge to Marx.

Religious movements and politics (case studies named in the syllabus):

• The Evangelical movement in US politics — the Moral Majority, founded by Jerry Falwell in 1979, mobilised conservative Christians on issues such as abortion and school prayer. Steve Bruce (Politics and Religion, 2003) argues that it gained attention but achieved limited policy change.
• The Ayatollahs and the Iranian revolution — in 1979 a mass movement led by Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew the Shah and established an Islamic republic, showing religion as a revolutionary force.

Frequently asked questions

Is religion conservative or a force for change? Both. It is conservative when it supports existing values (functionalism, Marxism) and radical when it inspires challenge (Weber, liberation theology, Iran 1979). Essays should weigh the two.

Which definition of religion should I use? State that definitions affect findings: functional definitions make religion seem widespread, substantive ones make decline easier to show.

Do I need both syllabus case studies? The syllabus gives them as examples (“such as”); knowing both in detail gives you flexible evidence.

Sources

• Cambridge International, Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology 9699 syllabus for 2024, 2025 and 2026, Paper 4 Religion, heading 11.
• Works and events are named with dates in the text.

Related pages: religion and social order revision notes | religion and social order practice questions | Paper 4 revision notes