Cambridge IGCSE Pakistan Studies: Nationhood, 1947–99 (0448)

Nationhood, 1947–99 is Section 3 of Paper 1 in Cambridge IGCSE Pakistan Studies 0448. It covers the problems Pakistan faced at independence, the governments and constitutions that followed, the separation of East Pakistan in 1971, the governments of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Zia-ul-Haq, Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, and Pakistan’s role in world affairs. It is examined through Key Questions 11 to 16, and strong answers weigh successes against failures rather than simply narrating events.

Syllabus coverage

CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PAKISTAN STUDIES (0448), 2026 — PAPER 1, SECTION 3: NATIONHOOD 1947–99

• Key Question 11: How successful was the establishment of an independent nation, 1947–48? Radcliffe Award; canal water dispute; UN mediation; division of assets; princely states, especially Jammu and Kashmir; refugees; economic, social and administrative problems; national language; India’s reactions; Jinnah as Governor-General
• Key Question 12: How far did Pakistan achieve stability after Jinnah’s death? Liaquat Ali Khan, Khwaja Nazimuddin, Ghulam Muhammad, Iskander Mirza, Ayub Khan and the “Decade of Progress”, Yahya Khan; the 1949 Objectives Resolution; Islamic provisions of the 1956, 1962 and 1973 Constitutions
• Key Question 13: Why did East Pakistan seek and form Bangladesh? East–West tensions; the Awami League; Sheikh Mujib and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; the Six Points; the war and India’s role
• Key Question 14: How successful was Pakistan 1971–88? Bhutto’s policies, the Simla Agreement 1972, the 1973 Constitution, reforms and overthrow; Zia-ul-Haq’s Islamisation, legal position of women and minorities, martial law and the Eighth Amendment, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
• Key Question 15: How effective were governments 1988–99? Benazir Bhutto 1988–90 and 1993–96; Nawaz Sharif 1990–93 and 1997–99; Musharraf’s takeover in 1999
• Key Question 16: How important has Pakistan’s role been in world affairs since 1947? Nuclear status; relations with Bangladesh, India, Afghanistan, Iran, China, the USSR/Russia, the USA, the UK and the Commonwealth, and the United Nations

What problems did Pakistan face in 1947–48? (Key Question 11)

• Radcliffe Award: the boundary was announced on 17 August 1947. Pakistan objected especially to the award of most of Gurdaspur district to India, which gave India a land route into Kashmir.
• Canal water dispute: key headworks were left in India, which cut off water to Pakistani canals in 1948. The dispute was settled by the Indus Waters Treaty (1960), mediated by the World Bank: the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) went to India and the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) to Pakistan.
• Division of assets: Pakistan received less than its agreed share of cash and military stores, and payments were delayed.
• Princely states: Junagadh, whose Muslim ruler acceded to Pakistan, was occupied by India in 1947. Hyderabad, whose Nizam sought independence, was taken over after Indian military action in September 1948. In Kashmir, a Muslim-majority state, the Hindu Maharaja acceded to India in October 1947 after tribesmen entered the state; fighting followed until a UN-arranged ceasefire on 1 January 1949. UN resolutions called for a plebiscite, which has never been held.
• Refugees: millions crossed the new borders amid massacres on both sides, and Pakistan had to house and feed huge numbers in Lahore, Karachi and elsewhere.
• Administration and economy: Pakistan had to build a capital at Karachi, a civil service and a central bank (the State Bank opened in July 1948) almost from nothing, with industry and raw-material processing mostly left in India.
• National language: Jinnah declared in 1948 that Urdu would be the state language, which angered Bengali speakers in East Pakistan.

Jinnah’s role: as Governor-General he set up the government, organised refugee relief and founded the State Bank. He died on 11 September 1948, before the constitution was written.

How far did Pakistan achieve stability, 1948–71? (Key Question 12)

Liaquat Ali Khan (Prime Minister 1947–51) secured the Objectives Resolution (1949), which stated that sovereignty belongs to Allah and that Pakistan would be a democratic state guided by Islamic principles, with protection for minorities. He was assassinated in 1951. Khwaja Nazimuddin became Prime Minister but was dismissed in 1953 by Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad, who also dissolved the Constituent Assembly in 1954. Under Iskander Mirza the 1956 Constitution made Pakistan an Islamic Republic with a Muslim head of state. Political instability led Mirza to declare martial law in October 1958; General Ayub Khan then removed him.

Ayub’s “Decade of Progress” (1958–69) brought land reforms, Basic Democracies, rapid industrial growth, the Green Revolution, the Indus Waters Treaty and the new capital at Islamabad. His 1962 Constitution was presidential; “Islamic” was restored to the country’s name by amendment in 1963. Critics point to rising inequality, the 1965 war with India and the unpopular Tashkent Declaration. Mass protests forced him out in 1969, and Yahya Khan imposed martial law, ended One Unit and held the 1970 general election.

Why did East Pakistan become Bangladesh? (Key Question 13)

East Pakistan had the majority of the population but felt dominated by the West in government, the army and the civil service. The language issue (protests in 1952), economic disparity and neglect after the 1970 cyclone deepened resentment. The Awami League under Sheikh Mujib-ur- Rahman put forward the Six Points (1966), demanding a federation with powers limited to defence and foreign affairs at the centre, separate currencies or accounts, and provincial control of taxation and foreign exchange. These were rejected as threatening national unity. In the 1970 election the Awami League won almost every East Pakistan seat and an overall majority, while Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party won most seats in the West. Talks failed, the army launched operations in March 1971, and civil war followed. India intervened militarily in December 1971, and Pakistani forces in the East surrendered on 16 December 1971.

How successful were Bhutto and Zia? (Key Question 14)

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971–77): negotiated the Simla Agreement (1972), which led to the return of captured territory and, after a further agreement in 1973, prisoners of war with India; introduced the 1973 Constitution, a parliamentary system that declared Islam the state religion; nationalised major industries, banks and schools; carried out land and labour reforms; and launched the nuclear programme. He reduced the army’s political power at first but created the Federal Security Force. After the disputed 1977 election and mass opposition protests, General Zia-ul-Haq seized power in July 1977.

Zia-ul-Haq (1977–88): introduced an Islamisation programme, including the Hudood Ordinances, the zakat and ushr system and a Federal Shariat Court. Critics argue that some laws disadvantaged women and religious minorities. He ruled under martial law, held a referendum in 1984 and non-party elections in 1985, and the Eighth Amendment gave the president power to dismiss the national assembly. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) brought millions of refugees but also large US aid. Zia died in an air crash in August 1988.

How effective were governments in the 1990s? (Key Question 15)

Benazir Bhutto (1988–90 and 1993–96) faced opposition from Nawaz Sharif’s government in Punjab, a failed no-confidence motion (1989), disputes with President Ghulam Ishaq Khan over appointments, inflation and unemployment, and tension in Kashmir; she was dismissed in 1990 and again in 1996 under the Eighth Amendment. Nawaz Sharif (1990–93 and 1997–99) pursued privatisation and deregulation, faced the loss of US aid and economic difficulties, removed the president’s power of dismissal in 1997, and ordered nuclear tests in May 1998. Tension with the army after the Kargil conflict of 1999 led to General Pervez Musharraf taking power in October 1999.

What role has Pakistan played in world affairs? (Key Question 16)

• Nuclear status: programme begun in 1972; India tested in 1974; Pakistan tested at Chagai in May 1998, following India’s tests; Pakistan has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
• India: wars and tension over Kashmir and Bangladesh; attempts at better relations, such as the Lahore Declaration (1999).
• Afghanistan: the Pakhtoonistan dispute; the Soviet invasion and refugee crisis.
• Iran: close ties and the Regional Cooperation for Development (1964); changes after the 1979 revolution.
• China: a close partner since the 1960s; the Karakoram Highway.
• USA and UK: membership of SEATO and CENTO; Pakistan left SEATO in 1972 and CENTO in 1979; left the Commonwealth in 1972 and rejoined in 1989.
• Bangladesh: recognised in 1974; issues of repatriation and division of assets remained.

Frequently asked questions

Why was the Kashmir dispute so important? It caused war in 1947–48 and 1965, remains unresolved, and has shaped Pakistan’s defence spending and relations with India ever since.

What did the Objectives Resolution say? It declared that sovereignty belongs to Allah, that power is a sacred trust exercised through the people, and that Pakistan would follow principles of democracy and Islamic social justice while protecting minorities.

How should I answer “How successful was Ayub Khan?” Give two or three successes and two or three failures with evidence, then decide which outweighed the other.

Related pages

• Paper 1 overview study guide
• The Emergence of Pakistan, 1906–47 study guide

Source: Cambridge International, Cambridge IGCSE Pakistan Studies 0448 syllabus for examination in 2026, Paper 1 Section 3, Key Questions 11–16.