Cambridge IGCSE Sociology: Crime Patterns, Explanations and Punishment — Revision Notes (0495)

These notes cover key questions 6.2 and 6.3 from the Crime, deviance and social control topic of Cambridge IGCSE Sociology (0495) Paper 2. Recorded crime and victimisation vary by age, social class, gender and ethnicity; sociologists explain these patterns through factors such as labelling, deprivation, status frustration and socialisation, and through five theoretical perspectives; and societies deal with crime through punishments and policing strategies whose effectiveness is debated.

For the whole Paper 2, see the family, education and crime study guide.

Syllabus coverage

0495 syllabus 2025–2027:

• 6.2 What are the patterns of and explanations for crime and deviance? — 6.2.1 patterns of crime and victimisation by age, social class, gender, ethnicity; 6.2.2–6.2.5 explanations based on age, ethnicity, gender and social class; 6.2.6 theories (postmodernism; interactionism, including labelling and moral panic theory; functionalism, including the New Right, subculturalism and strain theory; Marxism; feminism); 6.2.7 strengths and limitations.
• 6.3 How is crime dealt with in different societies? — 6.3.1 aims of punishment; 6.3.2 effectiveness of types of punishment; 6.3.3 effectiveness of policing and law enforcement.

Key terms

Term	Definition
Victimisation	Experience of being a victim of crime
Status frustration	Frustration at failing to gain status by legitimate means (A. Cohen, 1955)
Relative deprivation	Feeling deprived compared with others
Social exclusion	Being shut out from mainstream society and opportunities
Chivalry thesis	Idea that the justice system treats women more leniently (Pollak, 1950)
Institutional racism	Racism built into the practices of organisations (Macpherson Report, 1999)
Self-fulfilling prophecy	A label leads people to act as predicted
Moral panic	Exaggerated public reaction to a group seen as a threat (S. Cohen, 1972)
Strain	Gap between cultural goals and legitimate means (Merton, 1938)
Deterrence	Punishing to discourage future crime
Retribution	Punishment as deserved payback
Incapacitation	Removing the ability to offend, e.g. prison
Rehabilitation	Changing the offender so they no longer offend

6.2.1 Patterns (as shown in official statistics)

• Age: recorded offending peaks in the teenage years and early twenties; young people are also frequently victims.
• Class: working-class people are over-represented in recorded crime and prisons; middle-class white-collar crime is under-recorded.
• Gender: men commit most recorded crime, especially violent crime; women’s recorded crime is lower and more often property offences.
• Ethnicity: in some societies certain minority groups are over-represented in stop and search and prison figures — sociologists debate whether this reflects offending or policing.

Explanations by social characteristic

Group	Explanations named in the syllabus
Age (6.2.2)	Police targeting / stop and search; self-fulfilling prophecy; stereotyping; gang culture; socialisation and social control; lack of opportunity; status frustration
Ethnicity (6.2.3)	Institutional racism; prejudice and discrimination; police targeting; material and relative deprivation; stereotyping; gang culture; status frustration
Gender (6.2.4)	Chivalry thesis; culture of masculinity; socialisation and social control (Heidensohn, 1985: women more controlled); misogyny; stereotyping; gang culture; lack of opportunity
Social class (6.2.5)	Social exclusion; material and relative deprivation; inadequate socialisation; lack of opportunity; status frustration; power inequalities; police targeting

6.2.6 Theories

Theory	Explanation of crime	Example sociologist
Functionalism	Some crime is functional (boundary-setting); too much shows anomie	Durkheim
— strain theory	Goals–means gap leads to innovation (crime)	Merton (1938)
— subculturalism	Working-class boys form delinquent subcultures	A. Cohen (1955)
— New Right	Underclass with inadequate socialisation	Murray (1984)
Interactionism	Deviance is a label; labelling can create a deviant career; moral panics	Becker (1963); S. Cohen (1972)
Marxism	Laws and policing serve the ruling class; crimes of the powerful ignored	—
Feminism	Patriarchal control explains low female crime; women as victims	Heidensohn (1985); Carlen (1988)
Postmodernism	Crime is diverse and individualised; consumer culture creates new desires and crimes	—

6.2.7 Strengths and limitations (quick evaluation)

• Statistics-based explanations may mistake policing patterns for offending patterns.
• Strain and subcultural theories explain working-class crime but not white-collar crime.
• Labelling shows how agencies create crime but neglects victims and real harm.
• Marxism highlights power but can overlook working-class victims.
• Feminism explains gender differences but may generalise about all women.

6.3 Dealing with crime

Aims of punishment: protection of citizens, deterrence, retribution, incapacitation, rehabilitation.

Punishment	Main aim	Effectiveness debate
Community sentencing	Rehabilitation, reparation	Cheaper; may be seen as soft
Financial penalties	Deterrence	Unequal impact on rich and poor
Prison	Incapacitation, retribution	High reoffending; “schools of crime”
Rehabilitation programmes	Rehabilitation	Can reduce reoffending if funded
Capital punishment	Retribution, deterrence	Irreversible; limited evidence of deterrence
Corporal punishment	Deterrence, retribution	Seen as a human rights violation in many states
Exile / ostracism	Protection, shaming	Removes rather than reforms
Non-custodial (tagging, curfews, restraining orders), probation, cautions	Control in the community	Depend on monitoring and compliance
Social media and vigilante groups	Informal shaming	Risk of wrongful targeting and harm

Policing: targeting and stop and search (may detect crime but can damage trust and reflect bias); surveillance including digital surveillance (deterrence, privacy concerns); crime prevention; community policing (trust and local knowledge) versus military-style policing (force; risk of alienating communities). “Broken windows” (Wilson and Kelling, 1982) underpinned zero-tolerance approaches.

Common mistakes and exam traps

• Treating official statistics as the true picture of who commits crime.
• Confusing Albert Cohen (status frustration, 1955) with Stanley Cohen (moral panics, 1972).
• Listing punishments without assessing effectiveness, which is what 6.3.2 asks for.
• Forgetting victimisation in 6.2.1.
• Using only one theory in an evaluation answer.

Quick self-test

1. Give two explanations for higher recorded crime among young people.
2. What is the chivalry thesis?
3. Explain Merton’s idea of innovation.
4. Name the five aims of punishment.
5. Give one strength and one limitation of community policing.

Frequently asked questions

Why are men more criminal than women? Explanations include a culture of masculinity, greater social control of women (Heidensohn) and more opportunity; the chivalry thesis suggests part of the gap is lenient treatment of women.

Is prison effective? It protects the public while offenders are inside, but high reoffending rates suggest it often fails to rehabilitate.

Which theory explains white-collar crime best? Marxism, because it focuses on crimes of the powerful and why they are rarely punished.

Related pages: crime patterns and explanations practice questions | family, education and crime revision notes