OxfordAQA IGCSE Sociology: Differences and Inequalities (9292)

3.2.1 Differences and inequalities is the first topic of Paper 2 (Exploring Sociology) in OxfordAQA International GCSE Sociology (9292), Version 1.0, a new qualification first examined in May/June 2028. It asks how sociologists classify people into groups, how those groups differ in power and life chances, how class, gender and ethnicity are explained, and what has been tried to reduce inequality. The specification recommends the work of Connell, Crenshaw, du Bois, Marx, Walby and Weber, and credits other sociologists used appropriately.

Syllabus coverage

OXFORDAQA INTERNATIONAL GCSE SOCIOLOGY (9292) — 3.2.1 DIFFERENCES AND INEQUALITIES

• 3.2.1.1 Differences — classifying groups by social class, status, caste, slavery, sex and gender, race and ethnicity, age and generation/cohort, religion, ability/disability and nationality; how individuals identify with groups; individual and collective identities
• 3.2.1.2 Inequalities — inequalities in power and in life chances (employment, education, health, life expectancy, social mobility); intersectionality and its impacts on individuals; how inequalities affect people and society
• 3.2.1.3 Social class — Marxism (classes and class conflict, exploitation, false consciousness); functionalism (the functional necessity of class inequality, meritocracy); Weberianism (status, class, party); measuring class; wealth and income, including global comparison and change over time; upward and downward, intragenerational and intergenerational social mobility and the factors affecting it
• 3.2.1.4 Gender — feminist views of patriarchy; roles, status and power of men and women in different societies; sexism, sex discrimination and the glass ceiling
• 3.2.1.5 Ethnicity — race versus ethnicity; apartheid systems; legacies of colonialism and enslavement; racism, institutional racism, assimilation, multiculturalism, diasporas and hybrid identities
• 3.2.1.6 Attempts to reduce or eliminate inequalities — the Marxist case for abolishing capitalism; social democratic welfare states; development aid

How do sociologists classify differences between people?

Sociologists group people by social class (economic position), status (social honour or prestige), caste (a closed, ascribed hierarchy fixed at birth, as in the traditional Indian caste system), slavery (people owned as property), sex and gender (biological sex versus socially learned roles), race and ethnicity, age and generation or cohort (people born in the same period who share experiences), religion, ability or disability and nationality. Some of these positions are ascribed (given at birth) and others achieved.

People also identify with groups. An individual identity is how a person sees themselves; a collective identity is a shared sense of belonging, such as a national, religious or ethnic identity, that can unite people and mark boundaries with others.

What are inequalities in power and life chances?

Life chances are a person’s opportunities to achieve the good things in life. Inequalities show in employment (pay, security, promotion), education (attainment and access to higher education), health, life expectancy and social mobility. Groups with more power — the ability to get their way, even against opposition — can shape laws, institutions and opportunities to their advantage.

Intersectionality, a term introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989), argues that class, gender, ethnicity and other differences combine, so a person’s experience cannot be understood by looking at one in isolation. Crenshaw showed that Black women could face discrimination that neither a “race” nor a “sex” discrimination claim alone recognised. Inequalities affect individuals (stress, poorer health, fewer opportunities) and society (lost talent, social conflict, lower trust).

How do Marxists, functionalists and Weberians explain social class?

Perspective	Key ideas
Marxism (Marx)	Society is divided into the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labour. The bourgeoisie exploit workers by keeping the value they create beyond their wages, producing class conflict. Workers accept this because of false consciousness — ruling-class ideas make inequality seem natural and fair.
Functionalism (Davis and Moore)	Class inequality is a functional necessity: the most important jobs must carry the highest rewards to motivate the most able people to train for them. Society is a meritocracy in which positions are achieved by ability and effort.
Weberianism (Weber)	Inequality has three separate dimensions: class (economic position in the market), status (social honour) and party (political power through organised groups). A person can rank differently on each.

Evaluation. Marxism explains persistent inequality and exploitation but has been criticised for ignoring status, gender and ethnicity and for predictions of revolution that did not occur. Functionalism explains why some jobs are rewarded, but critics point out that inherited wealth and unequal opportunities mean society is not a true meritocracy. Weber’s model captures more complexity, which is why many sociologists use it to study modern class structures.

Measuring social class usually uses occupation, grouping jobs by pay, security and autonomy. Other measures include income, wealth, education and people’s own sense of their class. Each gives a different picture: occupation scales can miss the very wealthy, who may not work, and people outside paid work.

Wealth and income. Income is a flow of money (wages, benefits, interest); wealth is a stock of assets (property, savings, shares). Wealth is usually distributed far more unequally than income, both within societies and globally, where average incomes in the richest countries are many times higher than in the poorest. Inequality changes over time with taxation, welfare and economic change.

Social mobility is movement up or down the class structure. Intragenerational mobility is within one person’s lifetime; intergenerational mobility compares a person with their parents. Factors include education, family background, gender, ethnicity, the availability of jobs, and economic change such as the growth of professional work.

How do feminists explain gender inequality?

Feminists argue society is patriarchal — organised in ways that give men more power. Sylvia Walby identified six structures of patriarchy: paid work, household production, culture, sexuality, male violence and the state. She argued that patriarchy has shifted from a private form, based in the home, to a public form, in which women are in paid work and public life but remain disadvantaged there. Raewyn Connell described hegemonic masculinity, the dominant ideal of manhood that ranks some men above others and above women.

The roles, status and power of men and women vary between societies, which shows gender is socially constructed. Sexism is prejudice based on sex; sex discrimination is unequal treatment because of it. The glass ceiling is the invisible barrier that stops women reaching the most senior positions in employment even when they are qualified.

How do race and ethnicity create inequality?

Race is a way of classifying people by supposed physical differences, now seen by sociologists as socially constructed; ethnicity refers to shared culture, such as language, religion, traditions and a sense of common origin. Apartheid in South Africa was a legal system of racial segregation that controlled where people could live, work and be educated. Colonialism and enslavement have legacies today in global inequalities, in patterns of migration and in racist ideas that were used to justify them. W. E. B. du Bois described the “colour line” and the double consciousness of Black Americans, who saw themselves through the eyes of a society that looked down on them.

Key terms: racism (prejudice and discrimination based on race); institutional racism (discrimination built into the routines of organisations, even without individual intent); assimilation (minority groups adopting the majority culture); multiculturalism (different cultures coexisting with equal respect); diasporas (communities dispersed from an original homeland who keep links with it); and hybrid identities (identities that blend elements of more than one culture).

What attempts have been made to reduce inequality?

• Marxism argues inequality can only be eliminated by abolishing capitalism and replacing it with common ownership of the means of production. Critics point to the inequality and lack of freedom in societies that claimed to follow this route.
• Social democratic welfare states use progressive taxation and universal services such as healthcare, education and benefits to reduce inequality within capitalism. They narrow gaps but are costly and do not remove inequality of wealth.
• Development aid transfers money, expertise or goods from richer to poorer countries to reduce global inequality. Supporters credit it with improvements in health and education; critics argue it can create dependency or serve donors’ interests.

Common mistakes

• Confusing wealth (assets) with income (a flow of money).
• Treating race and ethnicity as the same concept.
• Describing Weber as a Marxist: Weber added status and party as separate dimensions.
• Using “intersectionality” as a synonym for “inequality” rather than for overlapping differences.

Frequently asked questions

What is false consciousness? The Marxist idea that the working class accepts beliefs that serve the ruling class, such as the belief that inequality is fair. It explains why exploitation does not automatically lead to revolt.

What is the difference between intergenerational and intragenerational mobility? Intergenerational mobility compares a person’s class with their parents’; intragenerational mobility is movement during one person’s own working life.

Who introduced the idea of intersectionality? Kimberlé Crenshaw, in 1989, to show how race and gender combine in the discrimination faced by Black women.

What did Walby mean by public patriarchy? That women now take part in paid work and public life but continue to face disadvantage there, rather than being confined to the home.

Related resources

• Differences and Inequalities revision notes
• Differences and Inequalities practice questions
• Socialisation study guide

Official syllabus

OxfordAQA International GCSE Sociology (9292) specification, Version 1.0, section 3.2.1 — oxfordaqa.com.