O Level Sociology: Tackling Inequality and Globalisation's Effects (Cambridge 2251)

Inequality is not inevitable: governments and organisations try to reduce it, with mixed results, and globalisation changes how unequal societies are compared with one another. Key questions 3.2 and 3.3 of Cambridge O Level Sociology (2251) ask you to explain legislation, welfare states and the work of non-governmental organisations (NGOs), to assess sociological views of their success, and to explain how migration, ecological problems and exploitation affect inequalities between societies.

Key question 3.1 is covered in the O Level social stratification and inequality guide.

Syllabus coverage

Cambridge O Level Sociology 2251 (2025–2027):

• 3.2 What attempts have been made to reduce social inequalities? — 3.2.1 legislation, e.g. progressive taxation, redistribution of wealth through benefits, a minimum wage, equal opportunities laws, other government measures; 3.2.2 welfare states and life chances (free and/or universal education, unemployment benefits, pensions, low-cost housing, free healthcare, universal basic income); 3.2.3 NGOs (reducing poverty, providing medical assistance, promoting business, improving education); 3.2.4 sociological views of success (New Right criticisms of the welfare state/underclass, the culture of poverty and dependency culture, Marxist criticisms of the welfare state, criticisms of NGOs, feminist criticisms of equality legislation).
• 3.3 How has globalisation affected inequalities between societies? — 3.3.1 migration (immigration/emigration, push and pull factors, cultural diversity, economic consequences, negative perceptions of migrants); 3.3.2 global ecological issues (transnational companies, climate change, pollution, urbanisation); 3.3.3 explanations (Marxist views of capitalist exploitation, colonialism, feminist ideas of patriarchy).

How do governments use laws to reduce inequality?

• Progressive taxation takes a larger share of higher incomes, funding services for everyone.
• Redistribution through benefits transfers money to poorer households. Pakistan’s Benazir Income Support Programme, launched in 2008, makes cash payments to low-income families, paid to women in the household.
• A minimum wage sets a legal floor under pay.
• Equal opportunities laws outlaw discrimination; Britain’s Equal Pay Act (1970) required equal pay for equal work by men and women.
• Other measures include quotas for disadvantaged groups in education or government jobs and subsidies on basic foods.

What does a welfare state provide?

Provision	How it improves life chances	Example
Free/universal education	Opens routes to better jobs and social mobility	Sri Lanka introduced free education from kindergarten to university in the 1940s
Unemployment benefits	Prevents destitution between jobs	Common in Europe; limited in many developing countries
Pensions	Income in old age	State and employer pension schemes
Low-cost housing	Secure, affordable homes	Public housing programmes
Free healthcare	Treatment regardless of income	Britain’s NHS (1948)
Universal basic income	Unconditional income for all	Debated and trialled in several countries

What do NGOs do?

• Reducing poverty: the Edhi Foundation, founded by Abdul Sattar Edhi in Pakistan in 1951, runs ambulances, shelters and orphanages for the poor.
• Providing medical assistance: international medical charities run clinics and vaccination campaigns in crisis areas.
• Promoting business: Akhuwat, founded in Pakistan in 2001, gives interest-free small loans so poor families can start businesses.
• Improving education: NGOs run low-cost schools, teacher training and literacy programmes, especially for girls.

Have these attempts worked? Sociological views

• New Right: welfare is too generous and creates an underclass that depends on benefits and lacks work discipline (Charles Murray, 1984 and 1990). They favour lower taxes and less state help.
• Culture of poverty / dependency culture: Oscar Lewis argued the poor develop fatalistic values passed to their children; the related idea of dependency culture claims benefits discourage self-reliance. Critics say poverty is caused by lack of opportunity, not values.
• Marxist: the welfare state is a “safety valve” that prevents unrest and keeps workers fit for work while leaving the ownership of wealth unchanged.
• Criticisms of NGOs: they may depend on foreign donors, follow donors’ priorities, lack accountability to local people, duplicate state services, and cannot tackle structural causes.
• Feminist: equality laws exist, but women still earn less, do most unpaid work and are under-represented in power; laws do not change patriarchal attitudes.

How does migration affect inequality between societies?

• Push factors: unemployment, low wages, conflict, natural disasters. Pull factors: jobs, higher wages, education, family already abroad.
• A major example is labour migration from South Asia to the Gulf states for construction and service work.
• Economic consequences: sending countries receive remittances, which support families and national income, but may lose skilled workers; receiving countries gain labour.
• Cultural diversity grows in receiving societies.
• Negative perceptions of migrants include stereotyping and blame for unemployment or crime; migrant workers may face poor conditions and limited rights.

How do global ecological issues affect inequality?

• Transnational companies may move factories to countries with lower wages and weaker safety rules; the collapse of the Rana Plaza garment building in Bangladesh in 2013 killed more than 1,100 workers.
• Climate change: poorer countries suffer most despite producing fewer emissions; the 2022 floods in Pakistan affected millions of people.
• Pollution: industrial waste and air pollution are often worst in poorer communities.
• Urbanisation: rapid migration to cities such as Karachi and Dhaka has created large informal settlements with poor sanitation.

Why are some societies richer than others?

• Marxist views: global capitalism allows rich countries and companies to profit from cheap labour and raw materials in poorer ones.
• Colonialism: colonial rule reshaped economies to export raw materials and drained wealth; its effects continue in trade patterns and institutions.
• Feminist ideas of patriarchy: women’s unequal access to land, education and paid work holds back whole societies, and globalisation often relies on women’s low-paid labour.

Frequently asked questions

Why do New Right and Marxist views both criticise welfare? The New Right says it does too much and encourages dependency; Marxists say it does too little and protects capitalism.

Is migration good or bad for sending countries? Both: remittances raise incomes, while emigration of skilled workers can weaken services. Answers should weigh the two.

Which local examples can I use? Any you can explain accurately — national cash-transfer schemes, local NGOs or recent climate disasters are all relevant.

Sources

• Cambridge International, Cambridge O Level Sociology 2251 syllabus for 2025, 2026 and 2027, key questions 3.2 and 3.3.
• Policies, organisations and events are named with dates in the text.

Related pages: O Level tackling inequality revision notes | O Level tackling inequality practice questions | O Level methods revision notes