OxfordAQA International A-level Psychology (9685): 3.4.1 Scientific approaches in psychology – Revision Notes

These notes condense the Scientific approaches in psychology study guide; read that first if any term below is new.

They cover section 3.4.1 of the OxfordAQA International AS and A-level Psychology (9685) specification, Version 3.1 (International A-level exams May/June 2020 onwards). The specification assesses this content in Section A, Approaches in psychology (30 marks), of Unit 4: Approaches and application. Unit 4 is a synoptic, 1 hour 30 minute written exam of 90 marks, worth 30% of the International A-level.

When you have revised, try the approaches practice questions. The 9685 course hub and 9685 checklist list every unit.

The four approaches in one line each

• Behaviourist: all behaviour is learned through association (classical) or consequences (operant); study only what can be observed.
• Social learning theory: we also learn by watching others, and mental (mediational) processes decide whether we copy.
• Cognitive: behaviour comes from internal mental processes, which are inferred from behaviour and described with models.
• Biological: behaviour has a physical basis in genes, brain structures and neurochemistry, shaped by evolution.

Key terms

Term	Definition
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)	Triggers a reflex response without learning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)	A once-neutral stimulus that now triggers the response after pairing with the UCS
Conditioned response (CR)	The learned response to the CS
Extinction	The CR fades when the CS keeps appearing without the UCS
Spontaneous recovery	An extinguished CR returns after a rest
Stimulus generalisation	A stimulus similar to the CS also triggers the CR
Positive reinforcement	A pleasant consequence is added, so the behaviour increases
Negative reinforcement	An unpleasant stimulus is removed or avoided, so the behaviour increases
Punishment	An unpleasant consequence, so the behaviour decreases
Variable ratio schedule	Reward after an unpredictable number of responses; most resistant to extinction
Modelling	A model shows a behaviour that an observer may copy
Imitation	Copying the model’s behaviour
Identification	Feeling similar to, or wanting to be like, a model
Vicarious reinforcement	Learning from the rewards or punishments another person receives
Mediational processes	Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
Schema	A mental framework of beliefs and expectations built from experience
Theoretical model	A description of a mental process as stages or parts, such as the multi-store model
Computer model	Treating the mind like a computer (input, processing, storage, output), or simulating thought with a program
Cognitive neuroscience	Study of how brain structures and activity support mental processes
Genotype	A person’s genetic make-up
Phenotype	How the genotype is expressed in observable traits, shaped by the environment
Concordance	The extent to which both twins in a pair share a trait
Neurotransmitter	A chemical, such as serotonin or dopamine, that carries signals across a synapse
Natural selection	Traits that aid survival and reproduction are passed on more often

Studies at a glance

Who	What they did	Key finding	One evaluation point
Pavlov	Paired neutral sounds (metronomes, whistles, tuning forks) with food for dogs	Sound alone came to produce salivation	Objective and controlled, but dogs’ reflexes may not generalise to complex human behaviour
Skinner (The Behavior of Organisms, 1938)	Rats in a box pressed a lever and received food pellets	Lever pressing followed by food increased (positive reinforcement)	Strong control, but ignores thought and expectation
Ferster and Skinner (1957)	Studied schedules of reinforcement	Variable ratio responding lasts longest without reward	Explains persistent behaviour such as repeated checking
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)	72 nursery children (37 to 69 months) saw an aggressive, non-aggressive or no model with a Bobo doll	Aggressive model led to more copied aggression; same-sex models had more influence	Demand characteristics: the doll is designed to be hit
Bandura (1965)	Model rewarded, punished or no consequence; then children offered rewards to copy	Punished-model group copied less, until offered rewards	Shows learning and performance are different
Bartlett (Remembering, 1932)	English participants recalled a Native American tale several times	Unfamiliar details dropped or changed to fit their culture	Supports schema, but procedure was loosely controlled
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)	Proposed the multi-store model	Sensory register, short-term and long-term stores	Clear theoretical model, but oversimplified
Maguire et al. (2000)	Structural MRI of London taxi drivers and controls	Larger posterior hippocampi; volume correlated with time driving	Correlation: cannot show cause on its own
Buss (1989)	Mate preferences of 10,047 people in 37 cultures	Men valued youth; women preferred older partners	Cross-cultural, but cannot test ancestral environments

Must-know distinctions

• Classical vs operant conditioning. Classical links two stimuli and works on reflexes. Operant links a behaviour with its consequence and works on voluntary behaviour.
• Negative reinforcement vs punishment. Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant and makes behaviour more likely. Punishment makes it less likely.
• Behaviourism vs SLT. Behaviourism needs direct reinforcement and ignores the mind. SLT allows learning by observation and adds mediational processes.
• Learning vs performance. Bandura (1965) showed a behaviour can be learned but not shown until there is a reason to perform it.
• Theoretical vs computer models. A theoretical model describes the parts of a process. A computer model uses the computer as an analogy or simulation.
• Cognitive approach vs cognitive neuroscience. The first infers processes from behaviour. The second links them to brain activity.
• Genotype vs phenotype. Genotype is inherited and fixed; phenotype is how it shows, after interaction with the environment.
• MZ vs DZ twins. MZ twins share all their genes; DZ twins share about half on average.

Mini essay plan

Discuss the cognitive approach in psychology, including the emergence of cognitive neuroscience. [16]

1. Knowledge. Define the approach: internal mental processes inferred from behaviour. Explain schema with Bartlett (1932). Describe one theoretical model (multi-store) and the computer analogy.
2. Knowledge. Outline cognitive neuroscience: brain imaging links processes to areas; Broca (1861) as an early root; Maguire et al. (2000) as modern evidence.
3. Evaluation (strength). Controlled experiments make it scientific and replicable; cognitive neuroscience adds objective, physical evidence.
4. Evaluation (strength). Practical value: schema research helps explain errors in eyewitness memory.
5. Evaluation (limitation). Inference means models can be abstract and hard to falsify; the computer analogy ignores emotion.
6. Evaluation (limitation). Artificial tasks reduce ecological validity; scans show correlation, not cause.
7. Synoptic link. Contrast with behaviourism, which rejects the study of mental processes, and with the biological approach, which cognitive neuroscience partly joins.
8. Judgement. The approach became more scientific once mental processes could be linked to brain activity, but it works best alongside emotional and social explanations.

Quick self-test

1. What is the difference between a neutral stimulus and a conditioned stimulus?
2. Define spontaneous recovery.
3. Give one example of negative reinforcement.
4. Which schedule of reinforcement is most resistant to extinction?
5. Name the four mediational processes in order.
6. What is identification?
7. What did Bandura (1965) show about vicarious reinforcement?
8. Why are mental processes said to be inferred?
9. What did Maguire et al. (2000) find?
10. Define phenotype.
11. What would MZ concordance of 100% suggest, and why is it not found?
12. What evidence did Buss (1989) use to support an evolutionary explanation?

Answers

1. A neutral stimulus produces no response before conditioning; it becomes a conditioned stimulus once pairing with the UCS makes it trigger the response alone.
2. The return of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.
3. Taking a painkiller to remove a headache, which makes taking painkillers more likely in future.
4. Variable ratio.
5. Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
6. Feeling similar to a model or wanting to be like them, which makes imitation more likely.
7. Children who saw a model punished copied less aggression, but all groups copied when offered rewards, so reinforcement affected performance, not learning.
8. They cannot be seen directly, so they are worked out from measured behaviour such as recall scores or reaction times.
9. Taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi than controls, and volume correlated with time spent driving a taxi.
10. How a person’s genotype is expressed in observable traits and behaviour, shaped by the environment.
11. That the trait is entirely genetic; it is not found, so environment also plays a part.
12. Consistent sex differences in mate preferences across 37 cultures.

Where marks are usually lost

• Giving “bell” as the UCS. Food is the UCS; the sound is the NS before conditioning and the CS after it.
• Using “negative reinforcement” to mean punishment.
• Describing Skinner’s box without saying what was reinforced and how.
• Listing mediational processes with no link to the scenario in an application question.
• Describing the Bobo doll study but forgetting its conditions or its finding on same-sex models.
• Writing that cognitive psychologists “see” mental processes.
• Saying brain scans prove a brain area causes a behaviour.
• Using twin data as proof of a purely genetic cause.
• Evaluating with stock phrases that name no study or approach.
• Missing synoptic chances: Unit 1 and Unit 2 studies can count as evidence in Unit 4.

For linked earlier content, see the Unit 1 introductory topics revision notes and the Unit 2 biopsychology revision notes. Determinism, nature-nurture and reductionism are Section B content; revise them with the issues and debates revision notes.

Official syllabus

OxfordAQA International AS and A-level Psychology (9685) specification, Version 3.1 (International A-level exams May/June 2020 onwards), section 3.4.1 Scientific approaches in psychology; Unit 4 details in section 2.3.